Punk Rock began free essay sample

This statement proposes that Punk Rock was pretty much a political articulation, which like most, was a result of the perspectives of the time; the energy of the progressive nineteen sixties had failed and from the fatigue rose something totally unique. There are a few reasons with respect to why the Punk development started. Numerous hypotheses recommend Punk to have been a crude political proclamation for change and disobedience (Laying, 1978, Pl Para) while others would contend that the entire scene was simply scripted discussion for corporate greed and moneymaking. Relatively, likenesses can be drawn between the nineteen fifties Rock n Roll time and the underground Rock marvel of the seventies. In addition to the fact that they bare a stylish similarity, yet in addition their following with the two kinds of music assuming a key job in the uprising of a Youth Culture (Larkin, 1 997, IPPP). As Broodier watched, nothing more obviously attests ones class, nothing more dependably arranges, than taste in music. (Shaker, 1994, pop).Punk clung to this, as its verses and social perspectives depended on young goals, for example, insubordination, agnosticism, profanity, viciousness, sexuality and mentalities towards school (Shaker, 1994, pop IPPP But why? Did the youngsters basic look for a business outlet to voice their conclusions and outrage or was everything out of fatigue? Weariness is a repetitive subject in numerous famous Punk songs of devotion (see Im Bored-Gigs Pop, I Just Want Have Something To Do-The Ramose and Boredom-The Buzzwords, to name a few).Boredom is another quality broadly connected with youngsters specifically, and for nineteen seventies adolescents the post sixties way of life was everything except exciting yet with the creation of punk the seventies carried in excess of a dreary end to probably the best ascents of the twentieth Century. It filled the void, with a sound so alarming and cluttered that you knew-from the main force heard it-that it couldnt last. (Roomers, 2009, page).While from a social point of view Punk Rock can be seen as an undeniable way of life for the maverick young people of the nineteen seventies, a few, for example, journalist Hanna Gardner from a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, propose that the artists began the class only for cash, popularity, kicks and chicks, that the Punk Rock wonder was each of the a put on (Roomers, 2009, little dog 207). While the adolescents may have en embracing the tousled stylish and up yours mentality of their Punk Rock music symbols, were the performers who were liable for the explode of this whole subculture just centered around getting rich and famous?Malcolm McAllen was one figure in Punk Rock specifically who, some may state, asserted this hypothesis with his corporate greed The Sex Pistols and broadly making them split and sell out. McAllen was an enterprising sort whose early inclusions in the Punk scene eventuated to his administration (or creation, as he esteemed it) of the Sex Pistols in the mid eventides (Savage, 1 991 , IPPP). The Sex Pistols obscured the lines among corporate greed and resistance, with them having the same number of melodies on the pop outlines as any renowned pop artist of the time.Anthems like Anarchy in the UK and God Save the Queen became tremendous hits in the UK diagrams and before long were heard all around the globe, diverting The Sex Pistols from furious youngsters who were a piece of the underground Punk development into rich and well known heroes. The musicians themselves would deny ever being in it for the cash, however McAllen himself has confessed to taking advantage of the ands notoriety With stock and even film, giving the feeling that they were more a result of corporate greed as opposed to a Punk Rock band (Savage, 1991, little dog 502). While some notorious authentic Punk figures perspectives turned out to be to one side because of popularity and riches, osmosis into Pop Culture was not by any means the only aim behind why Punk Rock truly started. For some Punk Rockers, making a reactionary aesthetic explanation against mainstream society was critical and the music was nevertheless a vessel for that imaginative articulation of outrage, political agitation and agnosticism. In Phil Strongman A History of Punk he sees that in certain zones, Punk Rock was seen as to a greater extent a religion than a subculture. It was a methods for bringing individuals of similar goals and convictions together (Pl 3, Para).This insists that Punk was made to go about as a political an announcement, a development lead by the young people of an age to call for change and movement. The uniform of the Pure Punk was one that was a piece of the announcement (Strongman, 2007, Pl 2-20). American Punk Rock Pioneer Richard Hell from the enhancing band Richard Hell and the Voids asserts that the motivation for the Punk uniform dates jack as right on time as 1 959, he himself taking impact from the French New Wave film The 400 Blows by Franã §ois Truthful. Richard Hell once expressed, It (Hells uniform) resembled the child in The 400 Blows, The Truthful movie.I recollect that I had an image of those three folks. I truly considered so much stuff in 73 and 74. This hypothesis of punk start as an imaginative explanation recommends that, in contrast to other people, Punk was a very much idea out work of art instead of only disobedience for revolting. Everything, down to what they wore filled need in their complicated aesthetic expectations and tallied towards the general impact of the Punk marvel. All in all, there is nobody reason regarding why Punk started however different hypotheses, all of which exposed a component of truth.While Punk stone may appear to be a logical inconsistency in itself (what with it turning into a business class of music when it was proposed to stay on the cusp of mainstream society) the underlying goals are ones that ask for an unrest, an adjustment in music, picture, and demeanor towards legislative issues, ind ividuals and mainstream society. Like a weed, punk developed during the dry decade between the sixties and the eighties, when the compass was turning crazy, when he commander had lost control of the wheel. (Roomers, 2009, Opening Shoo. Punk happened on purpose.

Mobile Analysis Business Model

This paper centers around the key vulnerabilities, where countless entertainers are attempting various vital ways to deal with position themselves in the most ideal situation in the worth framework. As a result, they are exploring different avenues regarding various improving plans of action. We contend that fruitful plans of action are probably going to be the ones that best location the financial idiosyncrasies fundamental this industry, similar to versatility, organize impacts and common monopolies.The paper presents the chief classes of on-screen characters that will take an interest In the portable business Industry and give a diagram of their plans of action dependent on a formalized philosophy. Numerous meanings of versatile business center around empowering business exchange through airless gadgets, befuddling portable trade and portable business. A usually embraced definition, by Drencher, characterizes portable business as â€Å"any exchange with a financial worth that Is directed by means of versatile media transmission network† (M;leeriness, 1999).Similar to internet business, the attention Is on the trading of items and administrations, yet without the limitation of a fixed client utilizing wired foundation. We like to embrace a more extensive perspective on versatile business, which incorporates â€Å"all exercises identified with a (potential) business exchange through correspondences arranges that Interface with portable devices† (Treacheries, 2002).Mobile business is an exceptionally later, yet encouraging Industry made by the development and boundless selection of remote information organizes, that empower the union of the Internet, e-business and the remote world (Oklahoma, 2002). Like other rising enterprises, versatile business is portrayed by a constantly changing and complex condition, which makes significant vulnerabilities at the degrees of innovation, request and methodology (Porter, 1980).At the mechanical level, vulnera bilities are ordinarily brought about by fast innovative turn of events and the pattern of an industry which is conceived on account of an innovative development. Concerning improve, in spite of a summed up accord about the enormous capability of portable business administrations, no one really realizes how to misuse the additional opportunities brought by innovation to make important administrations that the clients are willing to pay.Finally, key vulnerabilities are a typical circumstance in developing enterprises, whose basic trademark from the perspective of defining systems is that there are no settled standards of the game. As a result, on-screen characters must involvement in an assortment of vital methodologies and continually reposition themselves so as to locate the most good serious situation in the business. In light of these perceptions, we built up a general research system motivated by the chips away at the Balanced Scorecard (figure 1).Our goal is to imagine a market perception instrument for the versatile business industry. The basic thought is that we can all the more likely comprehend the truth by taking perspectives from various correlative points of view and assembling them all. The points of view are picked to cover all the various vulnerabilities referenced previously. Every point of view centers around specific parts of the portable scene and requires explicit perception devices. The advancement Focus Observed articles Observation apparatuses

M?n?g?m?nt Th??r? of Douglas McGr?g?r

M?n?g?m?nt Th??r? of Douglas McGr?g?r Think about this: Imagine a company without any sort of management.No boss, no entry level position, nothing, just a bunch of people working as they deem fit.Maybe you just got employed and then you are given a desk and you start work.Wait, who would employ you in the first place if I may ask? Who is giving you the desk?After all, there is no manager.Where would your office or desk be? First floor or last floor, or maybe you could just pick one.Thinking about it alone feels like my brains are about to blow. I just can’t paint the picture. But what I know for sure is that this would make for an interesting movie.Th? g??l ?f ?n? organization i? n?t ?nl? to in?r???? profitability, but also t? sustain it? ?xi?t?n?? by im?r?ving ??rf?rm?n??. In order t? m??t th? needs ?f th? highly ??m??titiv? m?rk?t?, ?rg?niz?ti?n? mu?t continually increase performance.Thi? can only be achieved if there is some sort of management in place.A business ??nn?t ?urviv? with?ut management b???u?? m?n?g?m?nt is it? means of ?u???rt. M?n?g?m?nt is ??n??rn?d with ???uiring m?ximum ?r????rit? with minimum ?ff?rt?. Management i? essential wherever gr?u? efforts are r??uir?d to be dir??t?d towards ??hi?v?m?nt? ?f ??mm?n goals.In this m?n?g?m?nt conscious ?g?, the significance ?f management can h?rdl? b? ?v?r ?m?h??iz?d.It i? ??id th?t ?n? thing minu? management amounts t? n?thing. Th?r? is no m?r? im??rt?nt area ?f human activity than management ?in?? its t??k i? th?t of g?tting things done thr?ugh others.S?m? und?r??tim?t? the im??rt?n?? ?f m?n?g?m?nt in bu?in??? but researchers h?v? shown th?t it i? certainly not the ????.Th? in?ut ?f th? labor, ???it?l ?nd r?w m?t?ri?l? ??n n?v?r b???m? ?r?du?ti?n without th? ??t?l??t ?f management. M?n?g?m?nt is a d?n?mi? life-giving element in ?n ?rg?niz?ti?n.In its ?b??n??, the resources of ?r?du?ti?n r?m?in und?rutiliz?d ?nd ??n n?v?r b???m? ?r?du?ti?n.In fact, with?ut ?ffi?i?nt management, n? country can b???m? a n?ti?n.Management ?r??t?? t??mw?rk ?n d team ??irit in ?n ?rg?niz?ti?n b? d?v?l??ing a ??und organizational ?tru?tur?. It bring? th? hum?n and m?t?ri?l resources together and m?tiv?t?? th? ????l? for th? ??hi?v?m?nt ?f goals.Th? im??rt?n?? ?f management to every ?rg?niz?ti?n g?v? ri?? t? diff?r?nt management theories. One ?f those th??ri?? is wh?t this ?rti?l? will tr? to explain.The Role of ManagementE???nti?ll?, the r?l? ?f managers i? to guid? th? organizations t?w?rd goal ????m?li?hm?nt. All organizations exist for ??rt?in purposes or goals, ?nd m?n?g?r? ?r? r????n?ibl? f?r ??mbining ?nd using ?rg?niz?ti?n?l r???ur??? t? ?n?ur? th?t th?ir organizations achieve th?ir ?ur?????.Th? r?l? ?f the Management i? t? m?v? ?n ?rg?niz?ti?n towards its ?ur????? ?r g??l? by ???igning activities th??? ?rg?niz?ti?n m?mb?r? ??rf?rm.If Management ensures that ?ll th? ??tiviti?? are d??ign?d effectively, th? production ?f each individu?l w?rk?r will ??ntribut? to the attainment ?f th? organizational g??l?.M?n?g?m?nt ?triv?? t? ?n??ur? g? individual ??tivit? th?t will l??d t? r???hing organizational g??l? ?nd t? di???ur?g? individu?l ??tivit? th?t will hinder th? accomplishment ?f th? ?rg?niz?ti?n objectives.Th?r? i? n? id?? m?r? important th?n managing th? fulfilm?nt ?f th? ?rg?niz?ti?n?l goals and objectives. Th? m??ning of th? Management i? giv?n b? it? g??l? ?nd ?bj??tiv??.All managers must have a ?ingl? minded focus ?n th? fulfilment ?f th? ?rg?niz?ti?n?l g??l?.D?UGL?? M?GR?G?R THEORY ?F MANAGEMENT ?L?? ??LL?D TH? X AND Y TH??RY After th? Hawthorne ?x??rim?nt? and th? ?ub???u?nt behavioral r????r?h of th? 1930’s and 1940’?, th? hum?n r?l?ti?n? ???r???h to m?n?g?m?nt joined the classical ??r????tiv? ?? a m?j?r school ?f m?n?g?m?nt th?ught.Wh?r??? the classical ??h??l ?d??t?d b? management pioneers ?u?h as Fr?d?ri?k T??l?r ?nd H?nri Fayol f??u??d ?n ?rin?i?l?? ?f management, ??i?ntifi? selection and training, ?nd worker ??m??n??ti?n, th? hum?n r?l?ti?n? ???r???h emphasized b?h?vi?r?l i??u?? such ?? j?b ??ti ?f??ti?n, gr?u? n?rm?, ?nd supervisory ?t?l?.The hum?n relations model was h?il?d as a more enlightened m?n?g?m?nt ??r?digm because it explicitly ??n?id?r?d the im??rt?n?? ?f individu?l ?nd how managers ??uld in?r???? productivity by in?r???ing workers j?b ??ti?f??ti?n.Th? ?nd g??l for management in?r????d ?m?l???? productivity; th? ???um?ti?n w?? that ??ti?fi?d w?rk?r? w?uld b? m?r? productive ??m??r?d with workers who f?lt ?nt?g?niz?d b? th? companies th?? worked f?r.In th? 1950’?, D?ugl?? M?Gr?g?r (1906-1964), a psychologist wh? taught ?t MIT ?nd ??rv?d ?? ?r??id?nt ?f Anti??h College fr?m 1948-1954, ?riti?iz?d b?th th? ?l???i??l ?nd hum?n r?l?ti?n? schools ?? in?d??u?t? f?r th? r??liti?? of th? w?rk?l???.H? b?li?v?d th?t th? ???um?ti?n? und?rl?ing b?th schools represented a n?g?tiv? view of hum?n n?tur? ?nd that another ???r???h t? m?n?g?m?nt based ?n ?n ?ntir?l? diff?r?nt set ?f ???um?ti?n? was n??d?d.McGregor l?id ?ut hi? id??? in his ?l???i? 1957 ?rti?l? The Hum?n Sid? ?f E nterprise ?nd th? 1960 book of th? ??m? name, in which he introduced wh?t ??m? t? be called the n?w hum?ni?m. Th??? w?r? named th??r? X ?nd th??r? Y.Theory XFor younger ????l?, wh?t M?Gr?g?r l?b?ll?d th? C?nv?nti?n?l Vi?w ?f m?n?g?m?nt tasks may seem confusing as m??t bu?in??? ??h??l? n?rm?ll? t???h a more Th??r? Y approach to management.H?w?v?r, in the 1950’? when he was writing th? ??nv?nti?n?l conception ?f managements task in harnessing hum?n ?n?rg? t? ?rg?niz?ti?n?l requirements or wh?t he d???rib?d ?? Theory X (in ?rd?r t? avoid the ??m?li??ti?n? ?????i?t?d with ?r??ting a label, 1957), w?? that it was th? dut? ?f management to ?rg?ni??, dir??t, control, ?nd m?dif? th? behaviour ?f ?m?l????? ?? ?th?rwi?? they might b???m? ????iv? ?r ?v?n resistant t? w?rk.The b???? ?f thi? vi?w w?r?, ?? ?rgu?d by M?Gr?g?r in 1957 i? th?t ????l? were ??????d t? working, th?? l??k ?mbiti?n and a d??ir? f?r responsibility, th?? were selfish, r??i?t?nt t? change, ?nd gullibl?.Therefore th? ??nv? nti?n?l wi?d?m was th?t ????l? n??d?d t? b? led b? ?th?r?. In response t? th??? ???um?ti?n?, management ?t?l? th?n resulted in th? h?rd and soft m?n?g?m?nt approaches.The hard ???r???h being ???r?iv?, r??uiring ?l??? supervision ?nd tight ??ntr?l whi?h ?ft?n resulted in r??i?t?n?? ?nd ?b?tru?ti?n.A soft approach whi?h was ???n ?? r??ulting in the ?bdi??ti?n ?f management and indiff?r?nt ??rf?rm?n??.Th? ???ul?r strategy th?n which w?? developed amongst m?n?g?r?, w?? “firm but f?ir“ (M?Gr?g?r, 1957).A???rding t? McGregor, Th??r? X l??d?r?hi? assumes th? f?ll?wing:W?rk is inh?r?ntl? di?t??t?ful to m??t people, ?nd th?? will attempt to avoid w?rk whenever ????ibl?.Most ????l? ?r? n?t ?mbiti?u?, have littl? d??ir? for r????n?ibilit?, ?nd ?r?f?r t? b? dir??t?d.Most ????l? have littl? aptitude for ?r??tivit? in solving organizational ?r?bl?m?.M?tiv?ti?n ???ur? only ?t the physiological ?nd security l?v?l? ?f M??l?w’? N??d? Hi?r?r?h?.M??t ????l? are self-centered. A? a result, th?? mu ?t be ?l???l? controlled ?nd ?ft?n ???r??d t? achieve organizational objectivesM??t people resist change.M??t ????l? ?r? gullibl? ?nd unint?llig?nt.Essentially, Th??r? X ???um?? th?t th? primary source ?f m??t ?m?l???? motivation i? m?n?t?r?, with security ?? a ?tr?ng second.Theory X The H?rd A??r???h and S?ft A??r???hUnd?r Theory X, m?n?g?m?nt ???r???h?? can r?ng? from a h?rd approach to a soft ???r???h.The h?rd approach r?li?? ?n coercion, im?li?it threats, ?l??? ?u??rvi?i?n, and tight ??ntr?l?, ????nti?ll? an environment ?f ??mm?nd ?nd control.The soft ???r???h i? t? b? ??rmi??iv? and ???k harmony with th? h??? th?t in return ?m?l????? will cooperate when asked to d? ??. H?w?v?r, n?ith?r of th??? extremes i? optimal. Th? h?rd ???r???h results in h??tilit?, purposely l?w-?ut?ut, ?nd h?rd-lin? uni?n demands. The soft approach r??ult? in ?v?r-in?r???ing r??u??t? f?r m?r? r?w?rd? in exchange f?r ?v?r-d??r???ing w?rk ?ut?ut.The ??tim?l m?n?g?m?nt approach und?r Theory X probably w?ul d be somewhere b?tw??n these ?xtr?m??. H?w?v?r, M?Gr?g?r ????rt? that n?ith?r ???r???h is ???r??ri?t? b???u?? th? ???um?ti?n? ?f Th??r? X are not ??rr??t.Th? Pr?bl?m with Th??r? XDrawing ?n Maslows hi?r?r?h?, M?Gr?g?r ?rgu?? th?t a ??ti?fi?d n??d no l?ng?r m?tiv?t??. Under Theory X the firm r?li?? ?n m?n?? ?nd benefits to ??ti?f? employees lower n??d?, ?nd ?n?? th??? n??d? ?r? satisfied the ??ur?? ?f m?tiv?ti?n is l??t.Th??r? X m?n?g?m?nt styles in fact hinder th? ??ti?f??ti?n ?f higher-level n??d?.C?n???u?ntl?, th? ?nl? way th?t ?m?l????? ??n attempt to ??ti?f? th?ir higher level n??d? in th?ir w?rk is by ???king m?r? compensation, so it i? quite ?r?di?t?bl? that th?? will f??u? on m?n?t?r? rewards.Whil? m?n?? m?? n?t be th? most ?ff??tiv? way t? ??lf-fulfilm?nt, in a Theory X environment it m?? b? th? only way.Und?r Theory X, ????l? use work to ??ti?f? their l?w?r n??d?, ?nd ???k to satisfy th?ir higher needs in th?ir leisure time. But it i? in ??ti?f?ing their high?r n??d? th?t e mployees can b? m??t ?r?du?tiv?.McGregor m?k?? the ??int th?t a ??mm?nd ?nd ??ntr?l environment is n?t effective because it relies on lower n??d? ?? l?v?r? ?f m?tiv?ti?n, but in m?d?rn society th??? n??d? already are ??ti?fi?d ?nd thu? n? longer ?r? m?tiv?t?r?.In thi? situation, one would expect ?m?l????? t? di?lik? th?ir work, ?v?id r????n?ibilit?, h?v? n? interest in organizational goals, r??i?t ?h?ng?, etc., thu? making Th??r? X a ??lf-fulfilling prophecy.From thi? r????ning, McGregor proposed ?n ?lt?rn?tiv?: Theory Y.Theory YIn ??ntr??t t? Th??r? X, ?r th? ??nv?nti?n?l approach t? m?n?g?m?nt, M?Gr?g?r (1957) ?r?????d an ?lt?rn?tiv? approach b???d ?n “m?r? adequate ???um?ti?n? ?b?ut human nature“, which h? ??ll?d Th??r? Y.In thi? ??r????tiv?, m?n?g?m?nt’? r?l? is not ?im?l? direction, but in organising th? resources for ?n ?nt?r?ri?? t? m??t its ?bj??tiv??, whether th?? ?r? human ?r m?t?ri?l.P???l? ?r? not ????iv?, ?nd it i? th? r????n?ibilit? ?f m?n?g?m?nt t? provide ????r tuniti?? for the d?v?l??m?nt ?f th?ir ?m?l?????, t? release their potential b? creating th? ??nditi?n? ?? th?t ????l? ??n harness th?ir ?ff?rt? to ??hi?v? organisational ?bj??tiv??.Thi? ??r????tiv? r??t? ?n the vi?w of human b?ing?, th?t r?th?r th?n b?ing ind?l?nt ?nd ???king dir??ti?n, humans ??tu?ll? are th? reverse.A???rding to M?Gr?g?r (1957), it was beginning to b? understood th?t, “th?t, und?r proper ??nditi?n?, unim?gin?d r???ur??? ?f creative hum?n ?n?rg? ??uld become ?v?il?bl? within the ?rg?niz?ti?n?l setting.“With organisations m??ting the most basic n??d? ?f th?ir hum?n r???ur???, th? ????rtunit? ?xi?t? to “dr?w ?ut“ th? performance ?f th?ir ?t?ff, in ????n??, t? m??t th?ir high?r n??d?.On? ?riti?i?m ?f thi? vi?w was th?t it r??ult?d in the ?br?g?ti?n of r????n?ibilit? by m?n?g?r?.H?w?v?r, thi? judgement l??k?d the und?r?t?nding th?t the Theory Y ???r???h r??uir?d a fully engaged m?n?g?ri?l role, and th?t th? r?l? h?d changed from ?n? ?f dir??ti?n t? one ?f ?r??t ing ??nditi?n? t? allow ?m?l????? t? fulfil their ??t?nti?l in th? ?ur?uit ?f ?rg?ni??ti?n?l g??l?.M?Gr?g?r w?? the fir?t t? ??int out th?t thi? “g??l“ w?? n?t something whi?h ??uld b? achieved overnight, ?nd ?? h? n?t?d, “?h?ng? in th? direction of Th??r? Y will b? ?l?w, ?nd it will r??uir? ?xt?n?iv? m?difi??ti?n ?f th? attitudes ?f m?n?g?m?nt and workers ?lik?.“The basic diff?r?n?? b?tw??n th? tw? approaches is w?ll expressed b? M?Gr?g?r. Another w?? of ???ing thi? i? th?t Th??r? X ?l???? ?x?lu?iv? reliance upon ?xt?rn?l ??ntr?l ?f hum?n b?h?vi?r, wh?r??? Theory Y relies h??vil? ?n ??lf-??ntr?l ?nd ??lf-dir??ti?n.It is w?rth n?ting th?t thi? diff?r?n?? is th? difference b?tw??n tr??ting ????l? as ?hildr?n and treating th?m as m?tur? adults.Th??r? Y m?k?? th? f?ll?wing general ???um?ti?n?:Th??r? Y manager b?li?v?? th?t giv?n th? right ??nditi?n?, most ????l? will w?nt to d? w?ll ?t w?rk ?nd that th?r? is a ???l ?f unused creativity in the w?rkf?r??.Th?? b?li?v?? that th? ?? ti?f??ti?n of doing a g??d j?b i? a ?tr?ng m?tiv?ti?n in and ?f itself.Y managers will try t? r?m?v? th? b?rri?r? that prevent workers fr?m full? ??tu?lizing themselves.Y m?n?g?r? ???um? that the ????l? th?? ?u??rvi?? ?r? ??mmitt?d to w?rk ?nd are ????bl? ?f finding ??luti?n? to work-related ?r?bl?m? as th?? ?r? th?m??lv??.Y managers ???um? that ????l? inh?r?ntl? ?r?f?r to work r?th?r th?n n?t to work. A? a r??ult th?? t?nd to ?u?h responsibility f?r work down th? ?h?in ?f ??mm?nd.Em?l????? ?r? gr?nt?d ?ut?n?m? within th?ir ?r??? ?f ????unt?bilit? and th?? structure w?rk ?? that subordinates h?v? ample ????rtunit? t? id?ntif? ?r?bl?m? ?nd find ?r??tiv? solutions to th?m.Structure the work ?nvir?nm?nt ?? that th? employee g??l? ??in?id? with organizational g??l? r??ulting ?r??um?bl? in gr??t?r creativity and productivity.Und?r th??? ???um?ti?n?, th?r? i? ?n ????rtunit? t? ?lign personal g??l? with ?rg?niz?ti?n?l g??l? b? u?ing th? ?m?l????? own ?u??t f?r fulfilm?nt as th? m?tiv?t?r.C riticism of Theory YTh? g??l of managers u?ing Theory X m?n?g?m?nt ?t?l?? w?? t? ????m?li?h ?rg?niz?ti?n?l g??l? thr?ugh the ?rg?niz?ti?n? hum?n resources.M?Gr?g?r? research suggested that wh?n w?rk w?? b?tt?r ?lign?d with human needs ?nd m?tiv?ti?n?, employee productivity w?uld in?r????.As a result, some ?riti?? h?v? ?ugg??t?d that, rather th?n ??n??rn for ?m?l?????,Th??r? Y ?t?l? m?n?g?r? were ?im?l? ?ng?g?d in a seductive form a manipulation.Ev?n ?? m?n?g?r? b?tt?r m?t?h?d w?rk t??k? to b??i? hum?n motivational n??d? through ??rti?i??tiv? m?n?g?m?nt, job r?t?ti?n, job ?nl?rg?m?nt, ?nd other programs that emerged ?t l???t ??rtl? fr?m M?Gr?g?r? work, m?n?g?r? w?r? still f??u?ing ?n m???ur?? of ?r?du?tivit? rather th?n measures of employee well-being.In essence, critics ?h?rg? that Th??r? ‘Y’ is a condescending scheme f?r inducing in?r????d ?r?du?tivit? from ?m?l?????, and unless ?m?l????? share in the ???n?mi? benefits of th?ir in?r????d ?r?du?tivit?, th?n th?? h?v? ?im?l? b??n duped int? w?rking harder f?r th? ??m? ???.THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THEORY ‘X’ LEADERSHIPB???d ?n th? ???um?ti?n? ?f Th??r? X, the X m?n?g?r? ???um?? that workers n??d t? b? ?l???l? monitored ?nd ?u??rvi??d und?r a well-developed ??m?r?h?n?iv? systems of ??ntr?l? hence a hi?r?r?hi??l ?tru?tur? i? needed with n?rr?w span of ??ntr?l at ???h l?v?l.X manager t?nd t? believe that ?v?r?thing must end in bl?ming someone. These m?n?g?r? feel th?t th? ??l? purpose ?f the employees’ int?r??t in the j?b i? m?n?? and security. Th?? bl?m? th? ??r??n without ?u??ti?ning wh?th?r it m?? b? th? ???t?m, ??li?? ?r l??k ?f training th?t deserves th? blame.X m?n?g?r? ??nn?t tru?t ?n? employee, ?nd th?? r?v??l thi? t? th?ir ?u???rt staff via th?ir communications constantly.X m?n?g?r? i? ?n impediment to ?m?l???? morale and productivityX m?n?g?r? b?li?v? it i? hi?/h?r job t? ?tru?tur? th? w?rk ?nd energize, ?v?n coerce (thr??t?n with ?uni?hm?nt) th? ?m?l???? thu? th?? n?tur?ll? ?d??t a more authoritarian style based on the thr??t ?f ?uni?hm?nt.E???nti?ll?, X m?n?g?r? r?li?? chiefly ?n ???r?i?n, implicit threats, ?l??? ?u??rvi?i?n ?nd tight ??ntr?l? i.?. environment of ??mm?nd ?nd ??ntr?l.Characteristics of the Theory ‘X’ ManagerPerhaps th? most n?ti???bl? ?????t? ?f McGregors XY Th??r? and the ???i??t t? illustrate ?r? f?und in the behaviours ?f ?ut??r?ti? m?n?g?r? ?nd ?rg?niz?ti?n? whi?h u?? ?ut??r?ti? m?n?g?m?nt ?t?l??.Wh?t ?r? th? characteristics ?f a Th??r? X m?n?g?r? Typically ??m?, m??t ?r all ?f these:r??ult?-driv?n ?nd d??dlin?-driv?n, t? the ?x?lu?i?n of ?v?r?thing elseintoleranti??u?? d??dlin?? ?nd ultim?tum?di?t?nt ?nd detached?l??f and ?rr?g?nt?liti?t?h?rt t?m??r?h?ut?i??u?? instructions, dir??ti?n?, ?di?t?i??u?? threats to m?k? ????l? f?ll?w in?tru?ti?n?d?m?nd?, n?v?r ??k?d??? not ??rti?i??t?d??? n?t team-buildunconcerned ?b?ut ?t?ff w?lf?r?, ?r m?r?l?proud, ??m?tim?? t? th? point ?f ??lf-d??tru?ti?n?n?-w?? communicator???r li?t?n?rfund?m?nt?ll? in???ur? ?nd ????i bl? n?ur?ti??nti-???i?lv?ng?ful ?nd recriminatorydoes n?t thank ?r ?r?i??withh?ld? r?w?rd?, and ?u??r????? pay ?nd remunerations l?v?l?scrutinizes ?x??nditur? t? th? point ?f false ???n?m????k? culprits for failures ?r shortfalls???k? to apportion blame in?t??d of f??u?ing ?n learning fr?m th? ?x??ri?n?? and ?r?v?nting r??urr?n??does n?t invit? or w?l??m? ?ugg??ti?n?t?k?? criticism b?dl? ?nd lik?l? to r?t?li?t? if from b?l?w ?r peer gr?u?poor at ?r???r d?l?g?ting but believes they d?l?g?t? w?llthinks giving ?rd?r? i? d?l?g?tingh?ld? ?n t? r????n?ibilit? but ?hift? ????unt?bilit? t? subordinatesr?l?tiv?l? un??n??rn?d with investing in anything t? g?in futur? im?r?v?m?nt?Th??r? X A??um?ti?n?The average hum?n b?ing has an inherent dislike ?f w?rk ?nd will avoid it if h? ??n.B???u?? ?f th?ir dislike for work, m??t people mu?t be ??ntr?ll?d ?nd threatened b?f?r? they will w?rk h?rd ?n?ugh.Th? ?v?r?g? hum?n ?r?f?r? t? be dir??t?d, dislikes r????n?ibilit?, i? un?mbigu?u?, ?nd d??ir?? secu rity above everything.These ???um?ti?n? li? b?hind most ?rg?niz?ti?n?l ?rin?i?l?? today, ?nd give rise b?th t? “t?ugh” m?n?g?m?nt with punishments and tight controls, and “soft” m?n?g?m?nt whi?h aims ?t h?rm?n? at w?rk.B?th th??? are “wr?ng” b???u?? m?n n??d? m?r? th?n financial r?w?rd? at work, he ?l?? needs ??m? deeper higher order motivation the ????rtunit? to fulfil him??lf.Theory X m?n?g?r? do n?t give th?ir ?t?ff this opportunity ?? th?t th? ?m?l????? b?h?v? in th? ?x???t?d f??hi?n.Theory Y A??um?ti?n?Th? ?x??nditur? of ?h??i??l and m?nt?l ?ff?rt in w?rk i? as natural as ?l?? ?r r??t.C?ntr?l ?nd ?uni?hm?nt ?r? n?t the only ways t? m?k? ????l? w?rk, m?n will dir??t himself if h? i? committed t? th? aims ?f the ?rg?niz?ti?n.If a job i? satisfying, th?n th? r??ult will b? commitment t? the organization.Th? average m?n l??rn?, und?r ?r???r ??nditi?n?, n?t ?nl? to ?????t but t? ???k r????n?ibilit?.Im?gin?ti?n, creativity, ?nd ingenuity can b? u??d to solve work ?r?bl?m ? by a l?rg? number ?f ?m?l?????.Under th? ??nditi?n? ?f m?d?rn indu?tri?l lif?, th? intellectual potentialities ?f th? ?v?r?g? man ?r? ?nl? ??rti?ll? utiliz?d.THEORY-X ?ND TH??R?-Y M?N?G?M?NT APPLICATIONIf Th??r?-Y holds tru?, an ?rg?niz?ti?n can ???l? th??? principles of scientific management to im?r?v? employee motivation:Decentralization ?nd D?l?g?ti?n: If firm? decentralize control ?nd r?du?? th? numb?r of levels ?f m?n?g?m?nt; m?n?g?r? will have m?r? ?ub?rdin?t?? ?nd ??n???u?ntl? will b? f?r??d to d?l?g?t? ??m? responsibility ?nd decision-making th?m.Job enlargement: Br??d?ning th? ????? of ?n ?m?l????’? job ?dd? v?ri?t? ?nd ????rtuniti?? t? ??ti?f? ?g? needs.P?rti?i??tiv? management: C?n?ulting employees in th? decisions m?king process t??? their ?r??tiv? capacity ?nd ?r?vid?? th?m with ??m? control over their w?rk ?nvir?nm?nt.Performance appraisals: H?ving the ?m?l???? ??t ?bj??tiv?? ?nd participate in the ?r????? ?f ?v?lu?ting how well th?? w?r? met.If ?r???rl? implemente d, such ?n environment w?uld result in a high level ?f w?rkf?r?? motivation as employees work to ??ti?f? th?ir high?r l?v?l personal n??d? thr?ugh th?ir j?b.In a nut?h?ll, it m?? ???m th?t M??l?w, M?Cl?ll?nd, H?rzb?rg, and McGregor vi?w motivation from a diff?r?nt ??r????tiv?. But basically, they ?m?h??iz? ?imil?r ??t? of relationships.Maslow stresses th? r?r?l? ??ti?fi?d higher l?v?l n??d? ?? the motivating f?r??.McClelland m?nti?n?d th?t the driv? for ??hi?ving v?ri?? in individu?l? ????rding t? th?ir personality ?nd cultural background.H?rzb?rg views “satisfiers” as m?tiv?t?r? after th? “h?gi?n? factors” have done ?w?? with di???ti?f??ti?n.M?Gr?g?r’? th??r?, which i? based ?n ???um?ti?n? ??n??rning th? motives of individu?l?, views m?tiv?ti?n from th? perspective ?f m?n?g?ri?l ?ttitud?.Summ?r?Th??r? XTh??r? X ?ugg??t? that individu?l? h?v? an in?till?d di?lik? f?r work and try t? ?v?id it. Thus, all w?rk?r? di?lik? w?rk, try t? ?v?id w?rk, ?r? born inh?r?ntl? lazy, mu?t b? ??n?t?ntl? dominated into d?ing a honest day’s w?rk and ?nl? turn u? t? w?rk t? collect th?ir pay. This m??n? th?t ?m?l????? mu?t b? ??ntr?ll?d b? thr??t in ?rd?r to perform. Such ?n ?m?l???? prefers t? b? directed, ?v?id? responsibility, i? explicit, ?nd ?r?f?r? security ?b?v? all ?l??.Criti?i?mTh??? ???um?ti?n? ?f th? Th??r? X ?m?l???? m?? l??d to v?ri?u? ?r?bl?m?, such as a t?ugh management (th?t b?li?v?? in ?uni?hm?nt ?nd tight ??ntr?l?) ?nd a ??ft m?n?g?m?nt (wh? ?triv?? f?r h?rm?n? in th? w?rk?l???, ?t th? expense of efficiency). It d??? n?t m?k? ?ll?w?n?? for ?m?l????? wh? n??d a feeling of ??lf-fulfilm?nt. Th??r? X m?n?g?r? ?l?? expect ?m?l????? to b?h?v? in an ?x???t?d, predictable f??hi?n.Th??r? YTh??r? Y ???um?? th?t ?m?l????? basically lik? t? w?rk and view work ?? ??m?thing r?th?r n?tur?l; m?r??v?r the w?rk?r views this ?? a potentially ?nj???bl? and ???itiv? ?x??ri?n??. It ?r???und? th?t th?r? ?r? w??? t? m?k? individu?l? ??rf?rm ?th?r than through ??ntr?l ?nd ?u ni?hm?nt. If th? ?m?l???? i? committed t? th? mission of th? d???rtm?nt s/he will b???m? a ??lf directed employee. J?b ??ti?f??ti?n means commitment t? th? d???rtm?nt and it? mission. Under the ?r???r ??nditi?n?, the employee will learn ?nd lead in t? ?????t?n?? ?f responsibility. M?n? ?m?l????? b? th? u?? ?f ?r??tivit?, im?gin?ti?n ?nd ing?nuit?, ??n solve ?r?bl?m? n? matter h?w big ?r small.Criti?i?mTh??r? Y m?? b? hard t? utiliz? where there ?r? a large number ?f ?m?l?????, but ??n b? utiliz?d ?n th? d???rtm?nt?l/divi?i?n?l m?n?g?r? ?f ?n ?rg?niz?ti?n. Thi? th??r? ?l?? ?ff??t? th? management ?f ?r?m?ti?n?, salaries, and development ?f ?ff??tiv? managers.Some ?f M?Gr?g?r’? th??ri?? ?r? unrealizable in practice, but th? b??i? ???um?ti?n ??n b? adhered t?, ?nd ?ut into ???r?ti?n.FIVE IM??RT?NT LIMIT?TI?N? ?B?UT THEORY ‘X’ TH??RY ‘Y’1. Th??r? X ?t?l? ?f m?n?g?m?nt f??t?r? a v?r? h??til? and di?tru?tful ?tm???h?r?An ?uth?rit?ri?n ?rg?niz?ti?n r??uir?? many m?n?g?r? just b? ??u?? th?? n??d to ??n?t?ntl? ??ntr?l ?v?r? single ?m?l????, ?nd the m?th?d ?f ??ntr?l u?u?ll? inv?lv?? a f?ir ?m?unt ?f thr??t and ???r?i?n.At tim??, an employer th?t i? ?v?rl? thr??t?ning will l??d t? di???ti?f??ti?n ?m?ng employees, ?r th?? might ?v?n ?tt?m?t to blame each ?th?r in ?rd?r t? ??v? th?m??lv?? fr?m th? thr??t?.Conversely, C??r?i?n might w?rk b?tt?r with the prospects ?f bigg?r r?w?rd? for m?r?, but ?m?l????? might ?ur????l? try t? cheat ?r ?tt?m?t to hid? the truth it??lf.Al??, ?m?l????? might tr? t? ??b?t?g? th? ?ff?rt? ?f each ?th?r in ?rd?r t? m?k? it ???i?r for th?m t? ??hi?v? th? r?w?rd?.2. Th??r? Y ?t?l? ?f management i? t?ugh t? u?h?ld in r??lit?Th? core b?li?f of Theory Y, i? that with th? right support and th? right environment, self-directed ?m?l????? will be ?bl? to perform th?ir jobs w?ll.H?w?v?r, b???u?? ?v?r? individual i? diff?r?nt from ?n? ?n?th?r, creating an environment whi?h fit? all does not ??und very ?r??ti??l in th? ?urr?nt ?r? ?f organizations .3. Theory X ?nd Th??r? Y i? v?r? hard t? be used with ???h ?th?rJu?t b???u?? we think that utilizing diff?r?nt th??ri?? in ?rd?r t? ????mm?d?t? different t???? ?f ?m?l????? does not m??n that it w?uld b? beneficial to the companies.In th? ?nd, the hum?n labor ?f th? ??m??n? might b? im?r?v?d, but at th? ???t of ?r??ting m?n?t?r? loses as w?ll ?? in?ffi?i?nt allocation ?f r???ur???.For ?x?m?l?, a company d??id?? to u?? b?th theories t?g?th?r. S?, in ?rd?r to ????mm?d?t? the n??d ?f ?m?l????? wh? are managed b???d ?n Theory X, m?r? employers will need to be hired ?nd ??id.Th? company ?l?? n??d? t? ??? and t? ?r??t? a ??mf?rt?bl? ?nvir?nm?nt for employees th?t ?r? ??lf-m?tiv?t?d b???d ?n a theory Y concept.It ???t? a small fortune for the ??m??n? t? ??t?r t? th? diff?r?nt t??t?? ?f ?? m?n? ?m?l?????. It i? ??tim?t?d th?t the company spending w?uld be high enough b???d ?n these f??t?r? ?l?n?.Th?r?f?r?, it might just b? m?r? b?n?fi?i?l for th? ??m??n? to utilize a single th??r? ?nd hire ?m?l????? that can b? consistently m?n?g?d with that th??r? alone.4. Theory X ?nd Theory Y makes ?m?l??m?nt h?rd?rPreviously, I’v? ??id that ??m??ni?? should only use a ?ingl? theory at ?n??. The theory that should b? used i? th? one th?t can ?ff??tiv?l? manage ?ll employees within th? ?rg?niz?ti?n.H?w?v?r, thi? in turn causes a ?r?bl?m during the ?m?l??m?nt ?r?????, b???u?? it is lik?l? that a company will reject an ???li??nt ??l?l? because he/she i? not consistent with th? theory th?t th? ??m??n? uses.Th?r?f?r?, if ??m??ni?? actually f?ll?w these th??ri?? ?l???l?, it will b? h?rd?r f?r ??t?nti?l candidates t? get a job ju?t b???u?? the company ??nn?t h?ndl? th?ir ?h?r??t?ri?ti?? within th? w?rk?l??? ?nd may give candidates th?t the company di??rimin?t?? heavily u??n its ???li??nt?.5. Th??r? X ?nd Th??r? Y work ?n ???um?ti?n?I think ?rg?niz?ti?n? should be ??r?ful, ?nd n?t rely t?? h??vil? ?n Theory X ?nd Th??r? Y b???u?? th?r? ?r? a lot of assumptions.Th? workforce is changing nowadays, ?nd the w?rk?l??? i? a dynamic mix ?f ?m?l????? fr?m diff?r?nt backgrounds, r???? ?nd g?nd?r?.Al??, ?m?l????? might h?v? ??m?l?t?l? diff?r?nt motivations ?nd g??l? f?r choosing to w?rk within ?n ?rg?niz?ti?n.N?w?d???, ?n ?m?l???? from G?n?r?ti?n X might ??m? into the workforce fr?m hi?/h?r ?r?vi?u? r?tir?m?nt, ?nd Generation Y employees might b? wr?ngl? perceived ?? ‘slackers’ f?r r?l?ing more ?n t??hn?l?g? t? m?n?g? their m??ting? ?nd make th?ir j?b? ???i?r.Lapses of Theories ‘X’ ‘Y’Unravelling the t?ngl?d w?b woven b? th? human r?l?ti?n? m?v?m?nt in the r??l w?rld over the past half century would ??rt?inl? make f?r ?n interesting ?ubj??t ?f study; but we ??n g?t a gri? ?n ?t least ??m? ?f the confusion by going b??k t? th? source.Th?r? is a ?im?l? ?nd ?bvi?u? obscurity in M?Gr?g?r’? di?tin?ti?n b?tw??n X and Y th??r? â€" a ??ng?nit?l fl?w, perhaps, th?t ?h?d? light on ??m? ?f the d?v?l??m?nt? that f?ll?w?d.In th??r? X as presented b? M?Gr?g?r, ?nd m?r? esp ecially as hi? ?u??????r? represented it, the w?rld of X is in a ?t?t? of ??nfli?t. M?Gr?g?r m?k?? th? point that a command ?nd ??ntr?l environment i? n?t ?ff??tiv? because it relies on l?w?r needs as lever of m?tiv?ti?n but in m?d?rn ???i?t? those n??d? ?lr??d? ?r? satisfied ?nd thu? no l?ng?r are m?tiv?t?r?.In this situation, it i? ?x???t?d that ?m?l????? w?uld dislike w?rk, ?v?id r????n?ibilit?, h?v? n? int?r??t in ?rg?niz?ti?n?l g??l?, r??i?t change etc. thu? m?king th??r? X a ??lf-fulfilling prophesy. W?rk?r? ?nd m?n?g?r? eye ?n? another ??r??? the ragged fr?nt lin?? ?f ?u??i?i?n ?nd mi?tru?t.H?w?v?r in the Y w?rld, it i? a ?t?t? of peace. Workers and m?n?g?r? ?mbr??? one another ?? ??rtn?r? ?n the journey t? ??r??n?l fulfilment.And all that i? r??uir?d t? ?h?ng? fr?m ?n? state t? th? ?th?r i? m?king a ?im?l? change in ?n?’? ???um?ti?n? ?b?ut human nature.But i? thi? r??ll? true? D??? ?ll conflict di???lv? in a high?r state ?f consciousness?Th? Confusion r??ult? from th? f??t th?t McGregor him??lf confounds and ?v?rl?? hi? di?tin?ti?n b?tw??n th??ri?? X Y with a second very diff?r?nt distinction.Thi? is a di?tin?ti?n n?t b?tw??n theories ?f hum?n n?tur? but between th??ri?? ?b?ut n?tur? ?f hum?n r?l?ti?n? â€" ?r, m?r? ?r??i??l?, about th? sources ?f hum?n ??nfli?t.Th? ??nfli?t? among human b?ing? ?lw??? ?rigin?t? in mi?und?r?t?nding.Elimin?t? th? false ???um?ti?n? th?t individu?l? ??rr? ?r?und th?ir h??d?, ?nd thu? a human community will r?turn t? the n?tur?l ?t?t? ?f peace.EFFECTS OF THE ‘X’ AND ‘Y’ THEORIES ON MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONSIn th?ir well-known textbook, H?r?ld K??ntz ?nd Cyril OD?nn?ll illustrated how the m?n?g?ri?l functions of planning, l??ding, and controlling might be affected by Theory X and Th??r? Y ???um?ti?n?.In r?g?rd t? planning, Theory X assumptions might l??d t? the ?u??ri?r setting of ?bj??tiv?? with little ?r n? participation from subordinates.Th??r? Y ???um?ti?n?, conversely, ?h?uld l??d to ?????r?tiv? ?bj??tiv?? d??ign?d with in?ut from b?th ?m?l????? and m?n?g?r?, resulting in a higher ??mmitm?nt b? ?ub?rdin?t?? t? accomplish these ?h?r?d objectives.Und?r Th??r? X, managers l??d?r?hi? styles ?r? likely t? be autocratic, whi?h may create r??i?t?n?? ?n the ??rt ?f ?ub?rdin?t??. C?mmuni??ti?n flow is m?r? likely t? b? d?wnw?rd fr?m manager t? the ?ub?rdin?t??.In contrast, Th??r? Y may f??t?r l??d?r?hi? ?t?l?? that ?r? m?r? ??rti?i??tiv?, whi?h would ?m??w?r subordinates t? seek r????n?ibilit? and b? m?r? committed t? g??l achievement. Th??r? Y l??d?r?hi? ?h?uld in?r???? ??mmuni??ti?n fl?w, especially in th? u?w?rd dir??ti?n.In r?g?rd to ??ntr?l, Theory X i? lik?l? t? r??ult in ?xt?rn?l ??ntr?l, with the m?n?g?r ??ting ?? a ??rf?rm?n?? judge; th? f??u? i? g?n?r?ll? ?n th? ???t.Conversely, Theory Y should l??d to ??ntr?l processes based ?n subordinates ??lf-??ntr?l.The m?n?g?r is m?r? lik?l? t? ??t as a coach r?th?r th?n a judg?, f??u?ing ?n h?w ??rf?rm?n?? ??n b? im?r?v?d in th? futur? r?th?r th?n ?n w ho was r????n?ibl? for ???t performance.Although th? conceptual linkages between Th??r? X ?nd Th??r? Y ???um?ti?n? and m?n?g?ri?l ?t?l?? ?r? r?l?tiv?l? ?tr?ightf?rw?rd, ?m?iri??l r????r?h has not ?l??rl? d?m?n?tr?t?d that th? r?l?ti?n?hi? b?tw??n th??? assumptions ?nd m?n?g?r? styles ?f ?l?nning, organizing, leading, ?nd ??ntr?lling i? ??n?i?t?nt with M?Gr?g?r? id???.THEORY ‘X’ AND THEORY ‘Y’ IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURYM?Gr?g?r? work ?n Th??r? X ?nd Th??r? Y h?? h?d a significant impact on management th?ught ?nd ?r??ti?? in th? ???r? ?in?? h? first ?rti?ul?t?d th? ??n???t?.In t?rm? ?f th? ?tud? of m?n?g?m?nt, M?Gr?g?r? concepts ?r? in?lud?d in the overwhelming m?j?rit? of basic m?n?g?m?nt textbooks, ?nd they ?r? still routinely presented t? ?tud?nt? ?f m?n?g?m?nt.M??t textbooks di??u?? Th??r? X ?nd Th??r? Y within th? ??nt?xt ?f m?tiv?ti?n theory; ?th?r? ?l??? Th??r? X and Th??r? Y within th? hi?t?r? ?f th? ?rg?niz?ti?n?l hum?ni?m movement.Th??r? X ?nd Th??r? Y are ?ft?n ?tu di?d ?? a ?r?lud? t? d?v?l??ing greater understanding ?f m?r? r???nt management ??n???t?, ?u?h ?? j?b enrichment, the j?b-?h?r??t?ri?ti?? m?d?l, ?nd self-managed w?rk t??m?. Although the t?rmin?l?g? may have ?h?ng?d since the 1950’s, M?Gr?g?r? id??? have h?d tremendous influence ?n th? study of Management.In t?rm? ?f th? ?r??ti?? of m?n?g?m?nt, the w?rk?l??? ?f th? early tw?nt?-fir?t ??ntur?, with its ?m?h??i? ?n ??lf-m?n?g?d work t??m? ?nd ?th?r f?rm? of worker inv?lv?m?nt ?r?gr?m?, i? generally consistent with th? ?r????t? of Th??r? Y.C?m??ni?? th?t use Th??r? ‘Y’Some big bu?in????? like Google ?nd A??l? use theory Y management t? run th?ir companies. Th?? choose to use th??r? y management because th?ir ??m??n? i? b???d ?n ?th?r people’s creativity t? come up with different id??? ?nd ?r?du?t?.B? ?r??ting different products ?nd ??ming up with diff?r?nt id??? ????l? th?t work ?t Google ?nd ???l? receive r?w?rd? (pay in?r????, fr?? ?r?du?t?, m?r? v???ti?n tim?, ?t?).By having rewards whil? w?rking ?t multi-million d?ll?r ??m??ni?? workers are m?tiv?t?d t? ??m?l?t? diff?r?nt ?r?j??t? ?t high ?t?nd?rd?.Th??r? Y w?rk? w?ll with th??? ??m??ni?? b???u?? it is b???d ?n using ?r??tivit?, h?ving great r????n?ibilit? and g?tting r?w?rd?. Th??r? Y d??? n?t ?lw??? work f?r most ??m??ni?? (?.g. C?r f??t?ri??) because th?? are ?lw??? ?r??ting th? ??m? product at th? same ?t?nd?rd witch do not ??u?? ??u t? u?? ??ur ?r??tivit?.Wh? choose Th??r? X over Theory ‘Y’?Companies ?h???? n?t to use th??r? Y management ?t?l? t? run th?ir ??m??ni?? because th?? (?? in managers, l??d?r? of the ??m??n?) d? n?t f??l th?t by being l?id b??k ?nd giving employees m?r? fr??d?m and room to ?x?r??? their creativity, n?t a lot ?f w?rk will get d?n? ?nd if w?rk d??? get done, it would n?t be t? ?t?nd?rd. In thi? ???? theory X management ?t?l? w?uld b? u??d.CONCLUSION S? in th? 1960’s, MIT Sloan School of M?n?g?m?nt ???i?l ????h?l?gi?t D?ugl?? McGregor developed a simple th??r? of m?t iv?ti?n.Th? th??r? ???? th?t ?v?r? m?n?g?r has a ??r??n?l vi?w about wh?t m?tiv?t?? ????l?, and th??? vi?w? affect wh?t managers do ?nd h?w they behave. Th?ir management style, in other w?rd?, ??n be influ?n??d b? assumptions.S?m? m?n?g?r? ???um? th?t ????l? ?r? l?z?, irr????n?ibl?, h?v? littl? t? ??ntribut? ?nd ?r? m?tiv?t?d b? rewards or punishments.Th??? ?r? the th??r? X m?n?g?r? â€" those wh? are likely to limit th? ????? ?f contribution fr?m th?ir people, rely ?n ?x?li?it control ?nd ?l??? supervision, and find th?ir ??ll??gu?? untrustworthy.Th??r? Y managers, ?n the ?th?r h?nd, b?li?v? th?t most ????l? w?nt t? ??ntribut?, ??rti?i??t? ?nd ?triv? t? achieve. Th?? h?v? a ???itiv? attitude ?nd b?li?v? colleagues ??n control ?nd dir??t th?m??lv??, ?nd m?k? v?lu?bl? int?ll??tu?l ??ntributi?n?.M?Gr?g?r th?ught th?t theory X m?n?g?r? w?r? more ?r?v?l?nt in th? 1950’s, despite the f??t that theory Y ?ff?r? a m?r? accurate r?fl??ti?n of human nature. In either case, th? ??r??n?l vi?w? that m?n?g?r? f?rm about ?m?l????? can h?v? a ?ignifi??nt im???t ?n both the culture ?nd ?lim?t? in ?n ?rg?ni??ti?n or work gr?u?. M?n?g?r?’ ???um?ti?n? â€" ?v?n when unfounded â€" can also become ??lf-fulfill?d ?r??h??i??, ?? people t?nd t? fulfil th? ?x???t?ti?n? of ?th?r?.If a m?n?g?r’? assumptions ?b?ut ?m?l????? are closer to theory X, th?n th?t m?n?g?r i? lik?l? t? h?v? l?w?r ?x???t?ti?n? of ????l? ?nd ??n???u?ntl? will n?t ?ll?w them t? ??rti?i??t? in k?? d??i?i?n?. Th? overall effect i? to limit ?m?l???? ??t?nti?l, ?nd this i? lik?l? to l??d t? l?w?r l?v?l? of performance.However, if a m?n?g?r’? ???um?ti?n? ?r? more in lin? with th??r? Y, th?? are likely t? tru?t ?nd ?m??w?r ????l?, ?ll?wing th?m to ??ntribut? t? the workplace in a meaningful w??.

The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber by Ernest...

It is the mainstay of many pieces of classic American literature, especially those that fall into the category of pulp, to have thin, cardboard-cutout characters with obvious emotions and intentions for which their only purpose is to drive the story to a predetermined end. The seductive and dangerous femme fatale; codgerly old men; the badgering and nagging housewife, adorned with dress and apron; and etc... These characters, and the many like them, are set into a story to play a specific role—namely as a reactor—and force the protagonist in some direction. After all, what would a hero do if there was nothing heroic to be done? Sit around? Twiddle their thumbs...? These characters are, in some degree, necessary for the purpose of†¦show more content†¦In the story he plays the guide and is an experienced safari goer and hunter. He, as described, is â€Å"[...]about middle middle height with sandy hair, a stubby mustache, a very red face and extremely cold blue eyes[...]†(The Short Happy... Pg. 01) Throughout the story, Wilson is the person we most hear the thoughts of, scattered through the narrative are his opinions and comments, presented mentally, and although minor, lead to important understandings in the story. Wilson, in his experience, has probably learned to keep his own affairs private, and as well, to keep out of others. He does a commendable job of trying to help Francis forget about his blunder against the lion, and remove strain in situations involving both Mr. and Mrs. Macomber. He is a diplomat, though as the story will prove, not a very consistent one. He holds a lukewarm contempt for women, especially American women, whom he deems â€Å"cruel† (and perhaps, once we look at Margot, this is not without merit). He is socially introverted, and as so tries to keep away from the personal affairs of the Macombers, but in the end fails and sleeps with Margot Macomber after her many flirtations and a late night seduct ion in his tent. Wilson is strikes as a person of regret and self abasement. He seems to truly love what he does, hunting for sport, but is known, as the story tells, to break a few of the tenets ofShow MoreRelatedThe Short Happy Life Of Francis Macomber By Ernest Hemingway1296 Words   |  6 Pagesthe darker parts of their nature and the insecurities they hide within. The short story â€Å"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber† by Ernest Hemingway depicts the struggles between people caused by their weaknesses, yet are built upon the inner workings of gender roles, and how losing their fears could have let them break away from their cycle. The story starts with the wife, Margot Macomber, trying to join the men, Francis and Wilson, in conversation but they both quickly kick her from her wants inRead More Analysis of The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber by Ernest Hemingway909 Words   |  4 PagesAnalysis of The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber by Ernest Hemingway Ernest Hemingway is known for producing novels and short stories with ambiguous endings. In his short story, The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber, he definitely leaves his readers guessing. The question is whether Margot kills her husband, Francis, intenionally, or if she accidentally shoots him in an effort to save his life. There are many points that could be argued for both conclusions, but my observationsRead MoreThe Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber by Ernest Hemingway Essay1229 Words   |  5 PagesThe Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber by Ernest Hemingway Death is not the biggest fear we have; our biggest fear is taking the risk to be alive. 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Ernest Hemingway experienced many historical events in his lifetime, in which, he endured humiliation and disappointment such as wanting to join the military, but being unable to due to a health condition (Young). Hemingway also underwent a divorce four times (Young). These experiences help influence Hemingway’sRead MoreThe Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber Essay801 Words   |  4 Pageshave nothing to fear, but fear itself.† Known by many, this common phrase has few words, but a intense meaning. In Ernest Hemingway’s short story, â€Å"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber,† the overcoming of fear is shown throughout the story. Francis Macomber and his wife Margaret Macomber are on an African safari with a man name Robert Wilson. Hemingway portrays Francis Macomber as wealthy and beautif ul, yet cowardly. 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The question is whether Margot kills her husband, Francis, intentionally, or if she accidentally shoots him, because she tries to save his life. There are many points that could be argued for both conclusions, but my observations have led me to believe that Margot did indeed shoot her husband intentionally

Juvenile Delinquents Vs. Gran Torino, And A Better Life One

Juvenile delinquents have been around for a long time, however it has not been until recently that society has cast light on this very serious issue. Nonetheless, there is still much that is unknown about juvenile delinquents which is why it is so easy for bystanders to label them as gangsters and criminals and forget about them. In reality, there are multiple factors that come in to play that when determining how juvenile delinquents got to the point where they are now. After watching the films Crips and Bloods: Made in America, Gran Torino, and A Better Life one is better able to understand what these factors are, such as income level as well as ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Despite the fact that all three of these films have very distinct plots, they are each able to accurately represent the various struggles that people from different ethnic and racial backgrounds have to face in their efforts to assimilate into the American culture. Now when applying the criminological theori es to the protagonists in these films, one is able to gain a better insight as to why the characters in these films go down the path of delinquency. And with better explanations for their behavior, the viewer can better determine which course of action would be necessary help these troubled juveniles stay away from this dangerous lifestyle. Each of these three films are focused on families from different races, and highlight their differences accordingly. The first film Crips and Bloods: Made

Breast Cancer Free Essays

Informative Speech Course Title: Public Speaking Course Code: COM 101 Title: Breast Cancer Presented by: Anna Kokkoni Reg. Number: K2005444 Do you know what is the link between Kylie Minogue, Sheryl Crow, Olivia Newton-John? Let me tell you a small story before I answer this question. My aunty Irene five years ago had a really bad pain in her right breast. We will write a custom essay sample on Breast Cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now Everybody use to tell her that it’s nothing. You don’t need to go to a specialist because from stress and nervous. One day she decide and went to the doctor just to be sure that its nothing. But she didn’t receive the answer that she was awaiting. The bad news came. ‘Mrs Irene you have breast cancer’. My aunty has the same as the three ladies mentioned above. I am here to talk you about breast cancer, the risk factors, the anatomy of women breast, self examination of breasts. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women. It happens when some cells of the breast lose control of multiplication and divide uncontrollably. These cells have the ability to break – Filtration some normal anatomic barriers to breast and disperse the rest of the body Each cancer so that breast cancer is due to a genetic abnormality in a cell. Although the cause is at a level of genes, only 5-10% of breast cancers are inherited from parents. The majority of breast cancers are due to some genetic damage that occurs during life. The risk of a woman developing breast cancer increases with age. So while until the age of 39 years, the risk is just 0. 5% in ages 40-59 years the risk reaches 4% (i. e. 1 in 25 women will develop breast cancer). From age 60 and older, the risk is high as 7% (approximately 1 in 15 women). Other risk factors for breast cancer are: Heredity – the daughters, sisters and mothers of women who developed breast cancer and particularly at a young age ( How to cite Breast Cancer, Papers Breast Cancer Free Essays string(48) " risk of the cancer coming back \(breastcancer\." Breast Cancer Eva Caballero School of Health Professions Abstract Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant cells (cancer) form in the tissues of the breast (Hail, 2011). It is considered a heterogeneous disease – differing by individual, age group, and even kinds of cells within the tumors themselves (Hail, 2011). There are several types of breast carcinomas including Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (Yi-Bin David, 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on Breast Cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some methods used to diagnose breast carcinoma are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). Each stage has different prognoses with varying survival rates as well (Marissa, 2011). There are also many ways to prevent breast cancer including maintain a healthy weight, avoiding the alcohol consumption, and by getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. women, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf Metcalf, 2008). Other breast diseases besides breast cancer are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). These diseases do not necessarily lead to breast cancer and can be treated (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Keywords: – breast cancer, ducts, lobules, tumor, invasive (infiltrating carcinoma), noninvasive (noninfiltrating carcinoma), Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS), Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC), intraductal carcinoma, nonfunctioning breast tissue, estrogen, lymph nodes, mammogram, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), core biopsy, somatic mutations, fine needle aspiration biopsy, stereotactic biopsy, FGFR2, BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, metastasis, fat necrosis, fibrocystic breast disease Breast Cancer Cells are the building blocks of living things and cancer grows out of normal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer doesn’t allow normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream (Peter, 2011). Normal cells in the body follow an orderly process of growth, division, and death, this is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form (Peter, 2011). Cancer has been around since prehistoric times, and breast cancer is one of the earliest forms to have been mentioned (Eisenpreis, 1999). In the United States, breast cancer death rates are higher than those for any other cancer, besides lung cancer (breastcancer. org, 2012). Today, about 1 in 8 women (12%) will develop breast cancer in her lifetime (Martin, 2012). Breast cancer is a cancer that starts in the tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). In rare cases, breast cancer can start in other areas of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Breast cancer can be invasive or noninvasive (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Invasive meaning it has spread from the milk duct (lobule) to the other tissues in the breast (Eisenpreis, 1999). Noninvasive means that it has not yet invaded other breast tissue (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Types of Breast Cancer Breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast – the ducts, the lobules, or sometimes, the tissue in between (breastcancer. org, 2012). There are several different types of breast cancer, including breast cancer in men (breastcancer. org, 2012). Some include Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), or intraductal carcinoma, is a noninvasive breast cancer in the lining of the milk ducts that has not yet invaded nearby tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). It may progress to invasive cancer if it is left untreated (Yi-Bin David, 2011). DCIS is the earliest form of breast cancer and is usually found during a mammogram done as part of breast cancer screening (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). Because of the increased use of mammograms, the rate at which DCIS is diagnosed has increased dramatically in recent years (Mayo Clinic Staff, 011). When a woman has DCIS, she is at higher risk for the cancer coming back or also at higher risk for developing a new breast cancer than a person who has never had breast cancer before (breastcancer. org, 2012). Experts believe that 20 to 50% of women with DCIS will later develop an invasive breast cancer within 10 years of the DCIS diagnosis (Hoffman, 2010). The risk of lymph node involvement with ductal carcinoma in situ is only 1% to 2% so the lymph nodes under the arm do not need to be removed, as may be  the case with other types of breast cancer (Hoffman, 2010). In seven out of 10 cases, breast-conserving lumpectomies – instead of mastectomies – were an effective treatment option (Hoffman, 2010). This will depend upon the size of your tumor and the extent of its spread throughout your breast and the surrounding lymph nodes (Hoffman, 2010). While DCIS isn’t life-threatening, it does require treatment to prevent the condition from becoming invasive (Mayo Clinic Staff 2011). Most recurrences happen within 5 to 10 years after the first diagnosis and the chances of that happening are under 30 percent (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma is an invasive type of breast cancer that begins in the milk-producing glands (lobules) of the breast (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). When a person has ILC, this means that the cancer cells have broken out of lobule where they started and they now have the potential to spread to other areas or tissues of the body (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). This type of cancer is more difficult to se e on imaging because of the way it grows with spreading branches (Hopkins, 2012). The treatments for invasive lobular carcinoma fall into two broad categories: Local and Systemic Treatment. Local treatments treat the tumor and the areas surrounding it, such as the chest and lymph nodes (breastcancer. org, 2012). Systemic treatments travel throughout the body to destroy any type of cancer cells that may have left the original tumor and traveled to other tissues to reduce the risk of the cancer coming back (breastcancer. You read "Breast Cancer" in category "Essay examples" org, 2012). ILC cells can proceed to infiltrate fatty tissue and create a web-like mass (Stephan, 2008). This web of cancer cells may feel like a thickened area of breast tissue, and may not cause concern or pain at first (Stephan, 2008). Unfortunately, if it is left undetected, ILC can develop into a mass that is about ? inch ( 2 centimeters) to about 2 inches (5 centimeters) or bigger in size, before causing more noticeable symptoms (Stephan, 2008). Breast cancer in men is a very rare disease (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). But the truth is that boys and girls, men and women all have breast tissue (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). Men have a small amount of nonfunctioning breasts tissue (breast tissue that cannot produce milk) that is concentrated in the area directly behind the nipple on the wall of the chest (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). A type of breast cancer that has spread outside of the duct and into the surrounding tissue is called invasive or infiltrating carcinoma (ASC, 2012). Some symptoms that may occur in males developing breast cancer include lumps, changes to the nipple or breast skin, or discharge of fluid from the nipple (National Cancer Institute, 2011). Men who have an altered gene related to breast cancer have an increased risk of developing breast cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2012). The major problem is that breast cancer in men is more often than not diagnosed later than breast cancer in women because men are less likely to be suspicious of an abnormality in that area (Wax, 2012). Also, their small amount of breast tissue is harder to feel, making it more difficult to catch these cancers early, and allowing tumors to spread more quickly to the surrounding tissues (Wax, 2012). Breast cancer in men is detected the same way as breast cancer is detected in women – through self-examination, clinical examination, or mammography (x-ray of the breast) (ASC, 2012). Methods for Diagnosis Breast cancer is sometimes found after symptoms appear, but many women with early breast cancer have no symptoms (American Cancer Society, 2011). This is why getting the recommended screening tests before any symptoms develop is so important (American Cancer Society, 2011). Three types of methods used for diagnosis are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray picture of the breast and can be used to check for breast cancer in women who don’t have any signs or symptoms of the disease. (NCI, 2010) The results are recorded on x-ray film or directly into a computer for a doctor called a radiologist to examine (Webmd, 2010). There are different types of mammograms including Screening mammograms and Diagnositc mammograms (Webmd, 2010). Mammograms detect tiny bits of calcium that develop in dead cancer cells (Hoffman, 2010). As more and more cancer cells age and die, theses calcifications grow nd on the mammogram, they appear as a shadowy area (Hoffman, 2010). Current guidelines from the American College Radiology, the American Cancer Society, and the Society for Breast Imaging recommend that women receive annual mammograms starting at age 40, even if they have no symptoms or family history of breast cancer (ACR, 2010). For every 1,000 women who have screening mammogram: 100 are recalled to get more mammogr aphy or ultrasound images, 20 are recommended for needle biopsy and 5 are diagnosed with breast cancer (ACR, 2010). A mammography unit is a rectangular box that houses the tube in which x-rays are produced (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). Once it is carefully aimed at the part of the body being examined, an x-ray machine produces a small burst of radiation that passes through the body, recording an image on photographic film or a special digital image recording plate (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). A brief medical history and a history of specific problems related to the breast, such as pain or a palpable lump (one that is felt), is obtained prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). All jewelry and clothing in the chest and breast area are removed prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). The patient’s breasts are then placed on a firm flat panel and a gentle, but firm pressure is applied to the breast with another panel, resulting in compression of the breast between the two panels (Stoppler, 2011). The compression of the breast is necessary to obtain quality mammograms and spreads the breast tissue out so that the x-ray image displays the inner breast tissue with good resolution (Stoppler, 2011). Dense bone absorbs much of the radiation while soft tissue, such as muscle, fat and organs, allow more of the x-rays to pass through them (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). As a result, bones appear white on the x-ray, soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). The results of the mammogram can be given to the patient either by the radiologist at the completion of the mammogram or by the patient’s doctor who ordered the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). An abnormal mammogram does not mean you have cancer (Stoppler, 2011). In some cases, it may just be an area of thicker or denser breast tissue, a cyst, or a benign lump such as a fibro adenoma (Stoppler, 2011). Unlike mammography which uses low dose x-rays to produce an image of the breast, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses powerful magnetic fields and radio waves to create images of the breast (Imaginis, 2012). The MRI system has the ability to switch magnetic fields and radio waves to achieve views in any plane and from any orientation while x-ray mammography requires re-orientation of the breast and mammography system for each view desired (Imaginis, 2012). MRI is a huge magnet and the woman gets put in the middle of the magnet; the magnetic field is turned on and then turned off again (Eisenpreis, 1999). The way the magnetized cells return to normal gives an image (Eisenpreis, 1999). The MRI finds lumps better than it tells whether or not they are cancerous (Eisenpreis, 1999). However, MRI can be good at showing how big a cancer is, once it has been found on the mammogram (Eisenpreis, 1999). A breast biopsy removes a sample of breast tissue that is looked at under a microscope to check for breast cancer and is usually done to check a lump found during a breast examination or a suspicious area found on a mammogram, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Marshall, 2009). During a fine-needle aspiration biopsy, the doctor inserts a thin needle into a lump and removes a sample of cells or fluid (Marshall, 2009). Nowadays, doctors might have decided to do something called stereotactic biopsy, where a patient lies on a table, with her breasts hanging down (Eisenpreis, 1999). A mammogram is taken to show where the lump is and a device holding a needle quickly shoots in and removes a few cells from the lesion (Eisenpreis, 1999). There is also something called a core biopsy that uses a larger needle to take out a piece of tissue, instead of just cells (Eisenpreis, 1999). A doctor numbs your skin with a shot of numbing medicine where the biopsy needle will be inserted and once the area is numb, a small cut is made in the skin from where the needle with a special tip is inserted into breast tissue (Marshall, 2009). Three to twelve samples will be taken to acquire the most accurate results (Marshall, 2009). Classifications and Associated Prognoses The stages of breast cancer are usually expressed as a number on a scale of 0 through IV – with stage 0 describing non-invasive cancers that remain within their original location and stage IV describing invasive cancers that have spread outside the breast to other parts of the body (Marisa, 2011). Cancer stage is based on four characteristics; the size of the cancer, hether the cancer is invasive or non-invasive, whether the cancer is in the lymph nodes, whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body beyond the breast (Marisa, 2011). Sometimes doctors use the term â€Å"locally advanced† or regionally advanced† to refer to large tumors that involve the breast skin, underlying chest structures, changes to the breast’s shape, and lymph node enlargement that is visible or that the doctor can feel during an exam (Marisa , 2011). The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are: Through tissue where cancer invades surrounding normal tissue, through the lymph system where the cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body, and through the blood, where cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body (NCI, 2009). When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph nodes or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form (NCI, 2009). This process is called metastasis (NCI, 2009). The stage of the breast cancer can help the patient and the doctor understand the prognosis (the most likely outcome of the disease) and make decisions about treatment, along with all the other results in the pathology report (Marisa, 2011). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). The TNM staging system classifies cancers based on their T, N, and M stages (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"T† followed by a number 0 to 4 describes the tumor’s size and spread to the skin or to the chest wall under the breast (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"N† followed by a number from 0 to 3 indicates whether the cancer has spread to lymph nodes near the breast and, if so, how many lymph nodes are affected. The letter â€Å"M† followed by a 0 or 1 indicates whether the cancer has spread to distant organ (ACS, 2012). There are typically five stages (0 to 4) with sub-stages that indicate the prognosis for breast cancer (Lippman, 2005). Stage 0 where the carcinoma is insitu and no lymph nodes are affected had 99 percent 5 year survival rate (ACS, 2012). Stage IA also has a high rate, 92 percent, in which the tumor is equal to 2 centimeters (ACS, 2012). In stage IB, the tumor is 2 centimeters with micro metastases in 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes but the cancer has not spread to distant sites (ACR, 2012). In stage IIA, the cancer cells have moved to the ipsilateral nodes and the 5 year survival rate lowers to 82 percent (Lippman, 2012). In stage IIB, the cancer cells have spread to movable ipsilateral nodes and the tumor is over 5 centimeters (Lippman, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 65 percent (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIA, there is no evidence of a primary tumor and no distant spreading (ACS, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 47 percent (Lippman, 2005). The tumor could be between 2 and 5 centimeters but there is still no distant spreading at this point (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIB the tumor has extended to the chest wall but there is still no distant metastases (Lippman, 2005). The 5 year survival rate lowers again to a 44 percent (Lippman, 2005). In stage IV the cancer can be any size (any T) and may or may not have spread to nearby lymph nodes (any N) (ACS, 2012). It has spread to distant organs or to lymph nodes far from the breast (M1) (ACS, 2012). The most common sites of spread are the bone, liver, brain, or lung (ACS, 2012). The survival rate lowers to 14 percent (Lippman, 2005). Prevention Methods Three ways to prevent breast cancer are by maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding alcohol consumption, and getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). Mammogram screening, early diagnosis and better treatments have all contributed to the reduction in breast cancer cases by around 2 percent a year and the improved survival rate in the U. S. (Reynolds, 2010). Experts say now the focus needs to shift on improving personal lifestyle habits to prevent the disease even more (Reynolds, 2010). Early detection of breast cancer with screening mammography means that treatment can be started earlier in the course of the disease, possibly before it has spread (NCI, 2010). A medical team found an 11 percent lower risk of breast cancer in those women consuming the more healthful diet, including more whole grains, fruits and vegetables and less fatty, processed foods (Reynolds, 2010). They also found that those consuming large amounts of alcohol had a 21 percent increased risk (Reynolds, 2010). Drinking alcohol during adolescence has been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer, especially for girls with a family history of the disease (Reynolds, 2010). Exercise also plays a role in the reduction of breast cancer risk (Reynolds, 2010). In one study from the Women’s Health Initiative, as little as 1. 25 to 2. 5 hours per week of brisk walking reduced a woman’s risk by 18 percent (Reynolds, 2010). Walking 10 hours a week reduce the risk more (Reynolds, 2010). Diet and exercise can lead to weight reduction, another positive lifestyle change that can influence breast cancer disease risk (Reynolds, 2010). Many breast cancers are fueled by estrogen, a hormone produced in fat tissue (Reynolds, 2010). Experts suspect that more fat tissue equals more estrogen resulting in more cases of breast cancer that could possibly be avoided (Reynolds, 2010). Genetic ; Hereditary Influence According to researchers, the mutations in the gene, which is called FGFR2, raise the risk of breast cancer by 20 to 60 percent. (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. omen, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Women with faulty copies of the genes BRCA1 or BRCA2 have 50 percent to 85 percent chance of getting breast cancer in their lifetimes, but they are rare genes and only account for 5 percent to possibly 10 percent of breast cancer cases (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Only 7% of all breast cancers are hereditary (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Of these hereditary cancers, 45% is caused by BRCA1 while 35% is caused by BRCA2 (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Variations of the  BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, and  TP53  genes increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Chen, 2007). The  AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, and  RAD51  genes are associated with breast cancer (Chen, 2007). Cancers occur when a buildup of genetic mutations in critical genes – those that control cell growth and division or the repair of damaged DNA – allow cells to grow and divide uncontrollably to form a tumor (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). These changes, which are called somatic mutations, are not inherited (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Less commonly, gene mutations inherited from a parent increase the risk of developing cancer (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). In people with these inherited genetic changes, additional somatic mutations in other genes must occur for cancer to develop (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Additional factors that may influence a person’s risk of developing breast cancer include gender, age, ethnic background, a history of previous breast cancer, certain changes in breast tissue, and hormonal factors (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). A history of breast cancer in closely related family members is also an important risk factor, particularly if the cancer occurred at an early age (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Women who have inherited certain mutations in these genes have a high risk of developing breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and several other types of cancer during their lifetimes (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Inherited changes in several other genes, including CDH1, PTEN, STK11, and TP53, have been found to increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved (Walsh ; King, 2007). For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant patter, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person’s chance of developing cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). In other cases, the inheritance of breast cancer risk is unclear (Walsh ; King, 2007). It is important to emphasize that people inherit an increased risk of cancer, not the disease itself (Walsh ; King, 2007). Not all people who inherit mutations in these genes will develop cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). Other Breast Diseases Two other diseases found in the breast other than breast carcinoma are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Fybrocystic breast disease is a commonly used phrase to describe painful, lumpy breasts (Sacks 2011). Hormones made in the ovaries can make a woman’s breasts feel swollen, lumpy, or painful before during menstruation each month (Sacks 2011). Fibrocysitc changes in the breast with the menstrual cycle affect over half of women (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms are usually worse right before the menstrual period, and then improve after the period starts (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms can include pain in both breasts, breasts that feel swollen and heavy, pain or discomfort under the arms, and thick or lumpy breasts (Sacks, 2011). This disease can be treated with medication like acetaminophen or ibuprofen (Sacks, 2011). Breast Fat necrosis is a benign condition that can occur in your breast (Silverman. 1994). It consists of fatty tissue that has been bruised, injured, or has died (Silverman, 1994). Once fatty tissue has been injured or has died, it can gradually change into scar tissue or may collect as liquid within an oil cyst (Silverman, 1994). Fat necrosis does not lead to the development of breast cancer, but it may sometimes cause breast pain (Silverman, 1994). An area of fat necrosis in your breast may feel like a fairly hard lump, or like a section of thick skin (Silverman, 1994). The person may see some drainage from the nipple that is nearest to the bruised region (Silverman, 1994). The nipple may sometimes even pull inward a little bit or the breast skin may dimple above the lump of fat necrosis (Silverman, 1994). Each case of fat necrosis is unique, so treatments will vary but if the fat necrosis has occurred recently, using warm compresses may help it subside (Silverman, 1994). When fat necrosis causes pain, the person can use ibuprofen and aspirin, but if that doesn’t help, ask your doctor if a prescription medication may be used (Silverman, 1994). About 39,520 women in the U. S. were expected to die in 2011 from breast cancer, though death rates have been decreasing since 1990 — especially in women under 50 (â€Å"Learn about cancer,† 2011). These decreases are thought to be the result of treatment advances, earlier detection through screening, and increased awareness (â€Å"breastcancer. org,† 2012). References Peter, C. (2011, October 20). Medical news today. Retrieved from http://www. medicalnewstoday. com/info/cancer-oncology/ breastcancer. org. (n. d. ). (2012, March 14). Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/understand_bc/statistics. jsp Yi-Bin , C. , ; David , Z. (2011, 15 12). A. d. a. m. medical encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001911/ Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011, June 23). Ductal carcinoma in situ (dcis). Retrieved from http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/dcis/DS00983 Avon Foundation Breast Cancer (n. d. ). In http://www. hopkinsmedicine. org/avon_foundation_breast_center/breast_cancers_other_conditions/invasive_lobular_carcinoma. html. Stephan, P. (2008, July 24). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma. Retrieved from about. com website: http://breastcancer. about. com/od/types/p/ilc. html Dugdale, D. (2010, August 14). Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002267/ Martin, L. (2012, January 18). Breast cancer facts. WebMD. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. om/guide/breast-cancer-arm-yourself-with-facts National Cancer Insitute. (2012). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/malebreast/Patient/page1 Attebery, L. , Adams, J. H. , ; Weiss, M. (2011, november 22). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/types/male_bc/ National Cancer Institute. ( 2011). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/malebreastcancer. html Wax, A. (2011). Breast cancer in men: Symptoms, causes, treatments. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/guide/breast-cancer-men American Cancer Society. (2011, September 29). American cancer society. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedGuide/breast-cancer-diagnosis NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Marshall, S. (2010, November 12). Webmd. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/mammogram-16573 Hoffman, M. (2010 February 18). Ductal carcinoma (invasive and in situ. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/ductal-carcinoma-invasive-in-situ ACR. (2012). Mammography facts. Retrieved from http://www. ammographysaveslives. org/facts. aspx Hirshaut, Y. , ; Pressman, P. I. (2008). Breast cancer: The complete guide. (5th ed. ). New York, NY: Bantam Dell. Radiological Society of North America. (2011, June 24). Radiologyinfo. org. Retrieved from http://www. radiologyinfo. org/en/info. cfm? pg=mammo ASCO. (2011, January 26). Breast Cancer- Male Retrieved from http://www. cancer. net/patient/Cancer Types/Breast Cancer – Male/? skid= Stoppler, M. C. (2011). Medicinenet. Retrieved from http://www. medicinenet. com/mammogram/article. html Imaginis. (2012). Breast cancer mri – magnetic resonance imaging. Retrieved from http://www. maginis. com/mri-scan/magnetic-resonance-breast-imaging-mri-mr-3 Eisenpreis, B. (1999). A young woman’s guide to breast cancer prevention. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Marshall, S. (2009, April 29). Breast biopsy. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/breast-biopsy Metcalf, T. , Metcalf, G. (2008). Perspective on diseases and disorders. (1 ed. ). Michigan: Thomson Gale. Chen, S. ( 2007, April 10). Meta-analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 penetrance. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Honrado, E. , Osorio, A. , Palacios, J. , Benitez, J. (2006, September 25). Pathology and gene expression of hereditary breast tumors associated with brca1, brca2 and chek2 gene mutations. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer/show/References Thompson, D. , Easton, D. (2004, July 9). The genetic epidemiology of breast cancer genes. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Walsh, T. , King, M. (2007, February 11). Ten genes for inherited breast cancer. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Marisa , W. (2011, August 03). Stages of breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/diagnosis/staging. jsp NCI. 2009). Breast cancer treatment (pdq). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page2 Lippman, M. E. (2005). Cancer monthly. Retrieved from http://www. cancermonthly. com/cancer_basics/breast. asp American Cancer Society. (2012, March 06). Breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedG uide/breast-cancer-staging Reynolds, D. (2010, March 26). Emaxhealth. Retrieved from http://www. emaxhealth. com/1506/98/36185/one-third-breast-cancer-cases-avoided-diet-and-exercise. html NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. ov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Sacks, D. N. (2011, November 16). Fibrocystic breast disease. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000912. htm Silverman, P. (1994, July). Breast fat necrosis – symptoms, causes and treatments. Retrieved from http://breastcancer. about. com/od/whenitsnotcancer/tp/Breast-Fat-Necrosis. htm American Cancer Society. U. S. Breast cancer statistics. (2011, September 29). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/index Hail, J. (2011, 09). National breast cancer foundation, inc.. Retrieved from http://www. nationalbreastcancer. org/About-Breast-Cancer/ How to cite Breast Cancer, Essay examples Breast cancer Free Essays Genetic testing has become an extraordinary tool in the fight against breast cancer in young women. Due to advancement of scientific research, the identification of the genetic markers of disease through the collection and analysis of an individual DNA is possible today. Genetic testing can help to identify which diseases an individual is predisposed to and then, by suggesting certain life style changes or repairing or replacing the genes possible, helps that patient to avoid potential illness. We will write a custom essay sample on Breast cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now About 10% breast cancer is termed as hereditary. A hereditary breast cancer may cause due to the age of onset of breast cancer, prevalence of other types of cancer in a family and the number of relatives suffering from cancer and their relationship with the patient. For assessing hereditary breast cancer, a genetic counselor will necessarily gaze at patient’s family’s medical information known as pedigree starts from first-degree relatives (parents, children and siblings) and then second-degree relatives(grand parents , uncles and aunts) and then third-degree relatives such as cousins. In the U. S. A, every year about 200. 000 women and 1500 men is being diagnosed with breast cancer and about 5% of these are in women in the age of 40 and under. About 12% or One in eight of U. S women aged 90 years or younger will suffer from breast cancer sometimes during her life time and 1. 4% or one in 70 will suffer from ovarian cancer and about 23000 U. S. women develop ovarian cancer each year. The U. S. Preventive services Task Force (USPSTF) suggests against routine recommendation for genetic counseling or routine breast cancer susceptibility gene (BRCA) examining for women whose family history is not associated with an augmented risk for deleterious mutations in breast cancer susceptibility gene1 (BRCA1) or breast cancer susceptibility gene 2(BCRA 2) . The USPSTF advises that women whose family history is related with an augmented risk for deleterious mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA 2 genes be referred for genetic counseling and evaluation for BRCA testing. If any woman is tested positive for a known mutation, she can select medical options to lessen the risk for cancer or diagnose disease at an early stage. It is to be borne in mind that test can only spot the two most common genes engaged in hereditary breast cancer but under certain situation, even a negative test may not rule out hereditary breast cancer in a family. It is interesting to note that not every individual who bears a mutation will suffer from cancer at a later stage and genetic testing can not discover breast cancer nor it forewarn you with certainty when you grasp cancer at some stage in your life . Undergoing genetic test may help to choose treatment methods and follow-up care for breast cancer patients and survivors. More over, if a cancer patient is the first patient to have a genetic test in a family, then test result may assist to identify the cause of hereditary cancer in a family. The main aim of this thesis is to focus how genetic test in younger women with a family history of breast cancer can help to minimize the chance of contracting breast cancer and early test results may help the young patient to undertake medical precautions to avoid in contracting such worst disease at a later stage. 2. BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE: Every living thing is gifted with the genes which may be described as nature’s blue print. Usually genes come in pair. One set of gene is passed through your mother and other set is from your father. It is the genes which determine how your body will function and grow and color of hair and eyes. Sometimes the genes may not perform well as they have some defects in them. Such gene is called mutated or altered gene. It is called inherited altered gene if a gene with mistake is passed along in family members. Certain altered genes may result in cancer and gene alterations have been found in many families with a history of breast cancer. With the availability of genetic testing commercially now, young women especially with hereditary breast cancer have to decide to go for genetic testing to determine whether they carry a mutation in BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 that enhances of chances of contracting breast or ovarian cancer. Genetics testing may affect psychosocial functioning, health practices and associations with wards and finances. Another study reveals that there is 50% probability of carrying the mutation by the children when parents tested positive for a mutation in BRCA 1 and BRCA 2. In a retrospective review of 639 women at high risk for contracting breast cancer who underwent prophylactic mastectomy between 1960 and 1993, Hartman et al. (1999) found out that a 90% reduction in the incidence of breast cancer. Prophylactic oophorectomy is a preventive method that is suggested to women with a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2. Garber, Kuntz, Schrag, Weeks (2000) estimated a 50% reduction in ovarian cancer risk after the surgery due to findings from genetic testing. As per Rebbeck (2000) prophylactic oophorectomy reduces about a 50 to 70 % breast cancer risk. Early stage detection of ovarian cancer is low and hence Prophylactic oophorectomy is often used to detect the same . As per Frank (1998) although surveillance is carried through biannual professional examination, ultrasonography and CA 125 testing to women with mutations, the actual efficacy of these surveillance measures is unknown. BCRA 1 and BCRA 2 mutations can be innate from either mother or the father. The National Cancer Institute has revealed that some factors which are independent of each other which increase the chances that a person inherits BRCA mutation and they include: 4 1. A family record of a number of (three or more) close blood relatives (sisters, daughters, mother and grandmothers, aunts) suffered with breast cancer, ovarian cancer or both. 2. A family record of a early onset ( before 50 or before menopause) breast or ovarian cancer in one or more close blood relatives (mother, daughters ,sisters , aunts or grandmothers ) 3. A family record of one or more near blood relatives (mother , sisters, grandmothers ,daughters , aunts ) 4. A family record of one or more close male blood relatives ( father, grand fathers ,brothers , sons , uncles ) 5. Jewish ancestry namely Ashkenazi (Eastern European) and a family history of breast and or ovarian cancer. It is to be noted that both maternal and parental family history is pertinent for identifying a person’s risk for breast / ovarian cancer. The earlier we diagnose, the breast cancer can be easily contained and defeated. If diagnosed late, it spreads to lymph nodes and becomes incurable. 3. Preliminary Data Each year about 39000 women and between 200 and 300 men are prone to breast cancer in UK. As per U. K. Government statistics number of people who developed breast cancer every year has increased by 70% since 1971 and 15% in the ten years to 2000. About 80 % of U. K Women contract breast cancer in the age between 60 and 64. Only 5% of breast cancers (around 2000) are diagnosed in women under the age of 40 and 2% (800) in women under 35. Almost three-quarters of women diagnosed breast cancer in 1991-1995 were alive five years later. And that increase to 78% where cancer is detected by screening . The death rate among young and middle aged due to breast cancer has come down almost a third since 1980 and three out of four women can now beat the disease. In another study it was find out a woman with a strong family history of breast / ovarian cancer and bear a germ line mutation in one of these germs is sustained to a life time risk of breast cancer about 85% and about 60% for ovarian cancer is a very alarming one. How to cite Breast cancer, Papers

Breast Cancer Free Essays

Informative Speech Course Title: Public Speaking Course Code: COM 101 Title: Breast Cancer Presented by: Anna Kokkoni Reg. Number: K2005444 Do you know what is the link between Kylie Minogue, Sheryl Crow, Olivia Newton-John? Let me tell you a small story before I answer this question. My aunty Irene five years ago had a really bad pain in her right breast. We will write a custom essay sample on Breast Cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now Everybody use to tell her that it’s nothing. You don’t need to go to a specialist because from stress and nervous. One day she decide and went to the doctor just to be sure that its nothing. But she didn’t receive the answer that she was awaiting. The bad news came. ‘Mrs Irene you have breast cancer’. My aunty has the same as the three ladies mentioned above. I am here to talk you about breast cancer, the risk factors, the anatomy of women breast, self examination of breasts. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women. It happens when some cells of the breast lose control of multiplication and divide uncontrollably. These cells have the ability to break – Filtration some normal anatomic barriers to breast and disperse the rest of the body Each cancer so that breast cancer is due to a genetic abnormality in a cell. Although the cause is at a level of genes, only 5-10% of breast cancers are inherited from parents. The majority of breast cancers are due to some genetic damage that occurs during life. The risk of a woman developing breast cancer increases with age. So while until the age of 39 years, the risk is just 0. 5% in ages 40-59 years the risk reaches 4% (i. e. 1 in 25 women will develop breast cancer). From age 60 and older, the risk is high as 7% (approximately 1 in 15 women). Other risk factors for breast cancer are: Heredity – the daughters, sisters and mothers of women who developed breast cancer and particularly at a young age ( How to cite Breast Cancer, Papers Breast Cancer Free Essays string(48) " risk of the cancer coming back \(breastcancer\." Breast Cancer Eva Caballero School of Health Professions Abstract Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant cells (cancer) form in the tissues of the breast (Hail, 2011). It is considered a heterogeneous disease – differing by individual, age group, and even kinds of cells within the tumors themselves (Hail, 2011). There are several types of breast carcinomas including Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (Yi-Bin David, 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on Breast Cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some methods used to diagnose breast carcinoma are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). Each stage has different prognoses with varying survival rates as well (Marissa, 2011). There are also many ways to prevent breast cancer including maintain a healthy weight, avoiding the alcohol consumption, and by getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. women, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf Metcalf, 2008). Other breast diseases besides breast cancer are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). These diseases do not necessarily lead to breast cancer and can be treated (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Keywords: – breast cancer, ducts, lobules, tumor, invasive (infiltrating carcinoma), noninvasive (noninfiltrating carcinoma), Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS), Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC), intraductal carcinoma, nonfunctioning breast tissue, estrogen, lymph nodes, mammogram, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), core biopsy, somatic mutations, fine needle aspiration biopsy, stereotactic biopsy, FGFR2, BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, metastasis, fat necrosis, fibrocystic breast disease Breast Cancer Cells are the building blocks of living things and cancer grows out of normal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer doesn’t allow normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream (Peter, 2011). Normal cells in the body follow an orderly process of growth, division, and death, this is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form (Peter, 2011). Cancer has been around since prehistoric times, and breast cancer is one of the earliest forms to have been mentioned (Eisenpreis, 1999). In the United States, breast cancer death rates are higher than those for any other cancer, besides lung cancer (breastcancer. org, 2012). Today, about 1 in 8 women (12%) will develop breast cancer in her lifetime (Martin, 2012). Breast cancer is a cancer that starts in the tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). In rare cases, breast cancer can start in other areas of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Breast cancer can be invasive or noninvasive (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Invasive meaning it has spread from the milk duct (lobule) to the other tissues in the breast (Eisenpreis, 1999). Noninvasive means that it has not yet invaded other breast tissue (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Types of Breast Cancer Breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast – the ducts, the lobules, or sometimes, the tissue in between (breastcancer. org, 2012). There are several different types of breast cancer, including breast cancer in men (breastcancer. org, 2012). Some include Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), or intraductal carcinoma, is a noninvasive breast cancer in the lining of the milk ducts that has not yet invaded nearby tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). It may progress to invasive cancer if it is left untreated (Yi-Bin David, 2011). DCIS is the earliest form of breast cancer and is usually found during a mammogram done as part of breast cancer screening (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). Because of the increased use of mammograms, the rate at which DCIS is diagnosed has increased dramatically in recent years (Mayo Clinic Staff, 011). When a woman has DCIS, she is at higher risk for the cancer coming back or also at higher risk for developing a new breast cancer than a person who has never had breast cancer before (breastcancer. org, 2012). Experts believe that 20 to 50% of women with DCIS will later develop an invasive breast cancer within 10 years of the DCIS diagnosis (Hoffman, 2010). The risk of lymph node involvement with ductal carcinoma in situ is only 1% to 2% so the lymph nodes under the arm do not need to be removed, as may be  the case with other types of breast cancer (Hoffman, 2010). In seven out of 10 cases, breast-conserving lumpectomies – instead of mastectomies – were an effective treatment option (Hoffman, 2010). This will depend upon the size of your tumor and the extent of its spread throughout your breast and the surrounding lymph nodes (Hoffman, 2010). While DCIS isn’t life-threatening, it does require treatment to prevent the condition from becoming invasive (Mayo Clinic Staff 2011). Most recurrences happen within 5 to 10 years after the first diagnosis and the chances of that happening are under 30 percent (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma is an invasive type of breast cancer that begins in the milk-producing glands (lobules) of the breast (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). When a person has ILC, this means that the cancer cells have broken out of lobule where they started and they now have the potential to spread to other areas or tissues of the body (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). This type of cancer is more difficult to se e on imaging because of the way it grows with spreading branches (Hopkins, 2012). The treatments for invasive lobular carcinoma fall into two broad categories: Local and Systemic Treatment. Local treatments treat the tumor and the areas surrounding it, such as the chest and lymph nodes (breastcancer. org, 2012). Systemic treatments travel throughout the body to destroy any type of cancer cells that may have left the original tumor and traveled to other tissues to reduce the risk of the cancer coming back (breastcancer. You read "Breast Cancer" in category "Essay examples" org, 2012). ILC cells can proceed to infiltrate fatty tissue and create a web-like mass (Stephan, 2008). This web of cancer cells may feel like a thickened area of breast tissue, and may not cause concern or pain at first (Stephan, 2008). Unfortunately, if it is left undetected, ILC can develop into a mass that is about ? inch ( 2 centimeters) to about 2 inches (5 centimeters) or bigger in size, before causing more noticeable symptoms (Stephan, 2008). Breast cancer in men is a very rare disease (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). But the truth is that boys and girls, men and women all have breast tissue (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). Men have a small amount of nonfunctioning breasts tissue (breast tissue that cannot produce milk) that is concentrated in the area directly behind the nipple on the wall of the chest (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). A type of breast cancer that has spread outside of the duct and into the surrounding tissue is called invasive or infiltrating carcinoma (ASC, 2012). Some symptoms that may occur in males developing breast cancer include lumps, changes to the nipple or breast skin, or discharge of fluid from the nipple (National Cancer Institute, 2011). Men who have an altered gene related to breast cancer have an increased risk of developing breast cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2012). The major problem is that breast cancer in men is more often than not diagnosed later than breast cancer in women because men are less likely to be suspicious of an abnormality in that area (Wax, 2012). Also, their small amount of breast tissue is harder to feel, making it more difficult to catch these cancers early, and allowing tumors to spread more quickly to the surrounding tissues (Wax, 2012). Breast cancer in men is detected the same way as breast cancer is detected in women – through self-examination, clinical examination, or mammography (x-ray of the breast) (ASC, 2012). Methods for Diagnosis Breast cancer is sometimes found after symptoms appear, but many women with early breast cancer have no symptoms (American Cancer Society, 2011). This is why getting the recommended screening tests before any symptoms develop is so important (American Cancer Society, 2011). Three types of methods used for diagnosis are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray picture of the breast and can be used to check for breast cancer in women who don’t have any signs or symptoms of the disease. (NCI, 2010) The results are recorded on x-ray film or directly into a computer for a doctor called a radiologist to examine (Webmd, 2010). There are different types of mammograms including Screening mammograms and Diagnositc mammograms (Webmd, 2010). Mammograms detect tiny bits of calcium that develop in dead cancer cells (Hoffman, 2010). As more and more cancer cells age and die, theses calcifications grow nd on the mammogram, they appear as a shadowy area (Hoffman, 2010). Current guidelines from the American College Radiology, the American Cancer Society, and the Society for Breast Imaging recommend that women receive annual mammograms starting at age 40, even if they have no symptoms or family history of breast cancer (ACR, 2010). For every 1,000 women who have screening mammogram: 100 are recalled to get more mammogr aphy or ultrasound images, 20 are recommended for needle biopsy and 5 are diagnosed with breast cancer (ACR, 2010). A mammography unit is a rectangular box that houses the tube in which x-rays are produced (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). Once it is carefully aimed at the part of the body being examined, an x-ray machine produces a small burst of radiation that passes through the body, recording an image on photographic film or a special digital image recording plate (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). A brief medical history and a history of specific problems related to the breast, such as pain or a palpable lump (one that is felt), is obtained prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). All jewelry and clothing in the chest and breast area are removed prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). The patient’s breasts are then placed on a firm flat panel and a gentle, but firm pressure is applied to the breast with another panel, resulting in compression of the breast between the two panels (Stoppler, 2011). The compression of the breast is necessary to obtain quality mammograms and spreads the breast tissue out so that the x-ray image displays the inner breast tissue with good resolution (Stoppler, 2011). Dense bone absorbs much of the radiation while soft tissue, such as muscle, fat and organs, allow more of the x-rays to pass through them (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). As a result, bones appear white on the x-ray, soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). The results of the mammogram can be given to the patient either by the radiologist at the completion of the mammogram or by the patient’s doctor who ordered the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). An abnormal mammogram does not mean you have cancer (Stoppler, 2011). In some cases, it may just be an area of thicker or denser breast tissue, a cyst, or a benign lump such as a fibro adenoma (Stoppler, 2011). Unlike mammography which uses low dose x-rays to produce an image of the breast, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses powerful magnetic fields and radio waves to create images of the breast (Imaginis, 2012). The MRI system has the ability to switch magnetic fields and radio waves to achieve views in any plane and from any orientation while x-ray mammography requires re-orientation of the breast and mammography system for each view desired (Imaginis, 2012). MRI is a huge magnet and the woman gets put in the middle of the magnet; the magnetic field is turned on and then turned off again (Eisenpreis, 1999). The way the magnetized cells return to normal gives an image (Eisenpreis, 1999). The MRI finds lumps better than it tells whether or not they are cancerous (Eisenpreis, 1999). However, MRI can be good at showing how big a cancer is, once it has been found on the mammogram (Eisenpreis, 1999). A breast biopsy removes a sample of breast tissue that is looked at under a microscope to check for breast cancer and is usually done to check a lump found during a breast examination or a suspicious area found on a mammogram, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Marshall, 2009). During a fine-needle aspiration biopsy, the doctor inserts a thin needle into a lump and removes a sample of cells or fluid (Marshall, 2009). Nowadays, doctors might have decided to do something called stereotactic biopsy, where a patient lies on a table, with her breasts hanging down (Eisenpreis, 1999). A mammogram is taken to show where the lump is and a device holding a needle quickly shoots in and removes a few cells from the lesion (Eisenpreis, 1999). There is also something called a core biopsy that uses a larger needle to take out a piece of tissue, instead of just cells (Eisenpreis, 1999). A doctor numbs your skin with a shot of numbing medicine where the biopsy needle will be inserted and once the area is numb, a small cut is made in the skin from where the needle with a special tip is inserted into breast tissue (Marshall, 2009). Three to twelve samples will be taken to acquire the most accurate results (Marshall, 2009). Classifications and Associated Prognoses The stages of breast cancer are usually expressed as a number on a scale of 0 through IV – with stage 0 describing non-invasive cancers that remain within their original location and stage IV describing invasive cancers that have spread outside the breast to other parts of the body (Marisa, 2011). Cancer stage is based on four characteristics; the size of the cancer, hether the cancer is invasive or non-invasive, whether the cancer is in the lymph nodes, whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body beyond the breast (Marisa, 2011). Sometimes doctors use the term â€Å"locally advanced† or regionally advanced† to refer to large tumors that involve the breast skin, underlying chest structures, changes to the breast’s shape, and lymph node enlargement that is visible or that the doctor can feel during an exam (Marisa , 2011). The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are: Through tissue where cancer invades surrounding normal tissue, through the lymph system where the cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body, and through the blood, where cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body (NCI, 2009). When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph nodes or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form (NCI, 2009). This process is called metastasis (NCI, 2009). The stage of the breast cancer can help the patient and the doctor understand the prognosis (the most likely outcome of the disease) and make decisions about treatment, along with all the other results in the pathology report (Marisa, 2011). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). The TNM staging system classifies cancers based on their T, N, and M stages (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"T† followed by a number 0 to 4 describes the tumor’s size and spread to the skin or to the chest wall under the breast (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"N† followed by a number from 0 to 3 indicates whether the cancer has spread to lymph nodes near the breast and, if so, how many lymph nodes are affected. The letter â€Å"M† followed by a 0 or 1 indicates whether the cancer has spread to distant organ (ACS, 2012). There are typically five stages (0 to 4) with sub-stages that indicate the prognosis for breast cancer (Lippman, 2005). Stage 0 where the carcinoma is insitu and no lymph nodes are affected had 99 percent 5 year survival rate (ACS, 2012). Stage IA also has a high rate, 92 percent, in which the tumor is equal to 2 centimeters (ACS, 2012). In stage IB, the tumor is 2 centimeters with micro metastases in 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes but the cancer has not spread to distant sites (ACR, 2012). In stage IIA, the cancer cells have moved to the ipsilateral nodes and the 5 year survival rate lowers to 82 percent (Lippman, 2012). In stage IIB, the cancer cells have spread to movable ipsilateral nodes and the tumor is over 5 centimeters (Lippman, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 65 percent (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIA, there is no evidence of a primary tumor and no distant spreading (ACS, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 47 percent (Lippman, 2005). The tumor could be between 2 and 5 centimeters but there is still no distant spreading at this point (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIB the tumor has extended to the chest wall but there is still no distant metastases (Lippman, 2005). The 5 year survival rate lowers again to a 44 percent (Lippman, 2005). In stage IV the cancer can be any size (any T) and may or may not have spread to nearby lymph nodes (any N) (ACS, 2012). It has spread to distant organs or to lymph nodes far from the breast (M1) (ACS, 2012). The most common sites of spread are the bone, liver, brain, or lung (ACS, 2012). The survival rate lowers to 14 percent (Lippman, 2005). Prevention Methods Three ways to prevent breast cancer are by maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding alcohol consumption, and getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). Mammogram screening, early diagnosis and better treatments have all contributed to the reduction in breast cancer cases by around 2 percent a year and the improved survival rate in the U. S. (Reynolds, 2010). Experts say now the focus needs to shift on improving personal lifestyle habits to prevent the disease even more (Reynolds, 2010). Early detection of breast cancer with screening mammography means that treatment can be started earlier in the course of the disease, possibly before it has spread (NCI, 2010). A medical team found an 11 percent lower risk of breast cancer in those women consuming the more healthful diet, including more whole grains, fruits and vegetables and less fatty, processed foods (Reynolds, 2010). They also found that those consuming large amounts of alcohol had a 21 percent increased risk (Reynolds, 2010). Drinking alcohol during adolescence has been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer, especially for girls with a family history of the disease (Reynolds, 2010). Exercise also plays a role in the reduction of breast cancer risk (Reynolds, 2010). In one study from the Women’s Health Initiative, as little as 1. 25 to 2. 5 hours per week of brisk walking reduced a woman’s risk by 18 percent (Reynolds, 2010). Walking 10 hours a week reduce the risk more (Reynolds, 2010). Diet and exercise can lead to weight reduction, another positive lifestyle change that can influence breast cancer disease risk (Reynolds, 2010). Many breast cancers are fueled by estrogen, a hormone produced in fat tissue (Reynolds, 2010). Experts suspect that more fat tissue equals more estrogen resulting in more cases of breast cancer that could possibly be avoided (Reynolds, 2010). Genetic ; Hereditary Influence According to researchers, the mutations in the gene, which is called FGFR2, raise the risk of breast cancer by 20 to 60 percent. (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. omen, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Women with faulty copies of the genes BRCA1 or BRCA2 have 50 percent to 85 percent chance of getting breast cancer in their lifetimes, but they are rare genes and only account for 5 percent to possibly 10 percent of breast cancer cases (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Only 7% of all breast cancers are hereditary (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Of these hereditary cancers, 45% is caused by BRCA1 while 35% is caused by BRCA2 (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Variations of the  BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, and  TP53  genes increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Chen, 2007). The  AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, and  RAD51  genes are associated with breast cancer (Chen, 2007). Cancers occur when a buildup of genetic mutations in critical genes – those that control cell growth and division or the repair of damaged DNA – allow cells to grow and divide uncontrollably to form a tumor (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). These changes, which are called somatic mutations, are not inherited (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Less commonly, gene mutations inherited from a parent increase the risk of developing cancer (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). In people with these inherited genetic changes, additional somatic mutations in other genes must occur for cancer to develop (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Additional factors that may influence a person’s risk of developing breast cancer include gender, age, ethnic background, a history of previous breast cancer, certain changes in breast tissue, and hormonal factors (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). A history of breast cancer in closely related family members is also an important risk factor, particularly if the cancer occurred at an early age (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Women who have inherited certain mutations in these genes have a high risk of developing breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and several other types of cancer during their lifetimes (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Inherited changes in several other genes, including CDH1, PTEN, STK11, and TP53, have been found to increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved (Walsh ; King, 2007). For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant patter, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person’s chance of developing cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). In other cases, the inheritance of breast cancer risk is unclear (Walsh ; King, 2007). It is important to emphasize that people inherit an increased risk of cancer, not the disease itself (Walsh ; King, 2007). Not all people who inherit mutations in these genes will develop cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). Other Breast Diseases Two other diseases found in the breast other than breast carcinoma are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Fybrocystic breast disease is a commonly used phrase to describe painful, lumpy breasts (Sacks 2011). Hormones made in the ovaries can make a woman’s breasts feel swollen, lumpy, or painful before during menstruation each month (Sacks 2011). Fibrocysitc changes in the breast with the menstrual cycle affect over half of women (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms are usually worse right before the menstrual period, and then improve after the period starts (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms can include pain in both breasts, breasts that feel swollen and heavy, pain or discomfort under the arms, and thick or lumpy breasts (Sacks, 2011). This disease can be treated with medication like acetaminophen or ibuprofen (Sacks, 2011). Breast Fat necrosis is a benign condition that can occur in your breast (Silverman. 1994). It consists of fatty tissue that has been bruised, injured, or has died (Silverman, 1994). Once fatty tissue has been injured or has died, it can gradually change into scar tissue or may collect as liquid within an oil cyst (Silverman, 1994). Fat necrosis does not lead to the development of breast cancer, but it may sometimes cause breast pain (Silverman, 1994). An area of fat necrosis in your breast may feel like a fairly hard lump, or like a section of thick skin (Silverman, 1994). The person may see some drainage from the nipple that is nearest to the bruised region (Silverman, 1994). The nipple may sometimes even pull inward a little bit or the breast skin may dimple above the lump of fat necrosis (Silverman, 1994). Each case of fat necrosis is unique, so treatments will vary but if the fat necrosis has occurred recently, using warm compresses may help it subside (Silverman, 1994). When fat necrosis causes pain, the person can use ibuprofen and aspirin, but if that doesn’t help, ask your doctor if a prescription medication may be used (Silverman, 1994). About 39,520 women in the U. S. were expected to die in 2011 from breast cancer, though death rates have been decreasing since 1990 — especially in women under 50 (â€Å"Learn about cancer,† 2011). These decreases are thought to be the result of treatment advances, earlier detection through screening, and increased awareness (â€Å"breastcancer. org,† 2012). References Peter, C. (2011, October 20). Medical news today. Retrieved from http://www. medicalnewstoday. com/info/cancer-oncology/ breastcancer. org. (n. d. ). (2012, March 14). Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/understand_bc/statistics. jsp Yi-Bin , C. , ; David , Z. (2011, 15 12). A. d. a. m. medical encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001911/ Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011, June 23). Ductal carcinoma in situ (dcis). Retrieved from http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/dcis/DS00983 Avon Foundation Breast Cancer (n. d. ). In http://www. hopkinsmedicine. org/avon_foundation_breast_center/breast_cancers_other_conditions/invasive_lobular_carcinoma. html. Stephan, P. (2008, July 24). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma. Retrieved from about. com website: http://breastcancer. about. com/od/types/p/ilc. html Dugdale, D. (2010, August 14). Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002267/ Martin, L. (2012, January 18). Breast cancer facts. WebMD. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. om/guide/breast-cancer-arm-yourself-with-facts National Cancer Insitute. (2012). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/malebreast/Patient/page1 Attebery, L. , Adams, J. H. , ; Weiss, M. (2011, november 22). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/types/male_bc/ National Cancer Institute. ( 2011). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/malebreastcancer. html Wax, A. (2011). Breast cancer in men: Symptoms, causes, treatments. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/guide/breast-cancer-men American Cancer Society. (2011, September 29). American cancer society. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedGuide/breast-cancer-diagnosis NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Marshall, S. (2010, November 12). Webmd. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/mammogram-16573 Hoffman, M. (2010 February 18). Ductal carcinoma (invasive and in situ. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/ductal-carcinoma-invasive-in-situ ACR. (2012). Mammography facts. Retrieved from http://www. ammographysaveslives. org/facts. aspx Hirshaut, Y. , ; Pressman, P. I. (2008). Breast cancer: The complete guide. (5th ed. ). New York, NY: Bantam Dell. Radiological Society of North America. (2011, June 24). Radiologyinfo. org. Retrieved from http://www. radiologyinfo. org/en/info. cfm? pg=mammo ASCO. (2011, January 26). Breast Cancer- Male Retrieved from http://www. cancer. net/patient/Cancer Types/Breast Cancer – Male/? skid= Stoppler, M. C. (2011). Medicinenet. Retrieved from http://www. medicinenet. com/mammogram/article. html Imaginis. (2012). Breast cancer mri – magnetic resonance imaging. Retrieved from http://www. maginis. com/mri-scan/magnetic-resonance-breast-imaging-mri-mr-3 Eisenpreis, B. (1999). A young woman’s guide to breast cancer prevention. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Marshall, S. (2009, April 29). Breast biopsy. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/breast-biopsy Metcalf, T. , Metcalf, G. (2008). Perspective on diseases and disorders. (1 ed. ). Michigan: Thomson Gale. Chen, S. ( 2007, April 10). Meta-analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 penetrance. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Honrado, E. , Osorio, A. , Palacios, J. , Benitez, J. (2006, September 25). Pathology and gene expression of hereditary breast tumors associated with brca1, brca2 and chek2 gene mutations. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer/show/References Thompson, D. , Easton, D. (2004, July 9). The genetic epidemiology of breast cancer genes. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Walsh, T. , King, M. (2007, February 11). Ten genes for inherited breast cancer. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Marisa , W. (2011, August 03). Stages of breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/diagnosis/staging. jsp NCI. 2009). Breast cancer treatment (pdq). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page2 Lippman, M. E. (2005). Cancer monthly. Retrieved from http://www. cancermonthly. com/cancer_basics/breast. asp American Cancer Society. (2012, March 06). Breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedG uide/breast-cancer-staging Reynolds, D. (2010, March 26). Emaxhealth. Retrieved from http://www. emaxhealth. com/1506/98/36185/one-third-breast-cancer-cases-avoided-diet-and-exercise. html NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. ov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Sacks, D. N. (2011, November 16). Fibrocystic breast disease. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000912. htm Silverman, P. (1994, July). Breast fat necrosis – symptoms, causes and treatments. Retrieved from http://breastcancer. about. com/od/whenitsnotcancer/tp/Breast-Fat-Necrosis. htm American Cancer Society. U. S. Breast cancer statistics. (2011, September 29). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/index Hail, J. (2011, 09). National breast cancer foundation, inc.. Retrieved from http://www. nationalbreastcancer. org/About-Breast-Cancer/ How to cite Breast Cancer, Essay examples Breast cancer Free Essays Genetic testing has become an extraordinary tool in the fight against breast cancer in young women. Due to advancement of scientific research, the identification of the genetic markers of disease through the collection and analysis of an individual DNA is possible today. Genetic testing can help to identify which diseases an individual is predisposed to and then, by suggesting certain life style changes or repairing or replacing the genes possible, helps that patient to avoid potential illness. We will write a custom essay sample on Breast cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now About 10% breast cancer is termed as hereditary. A hereditary breast cancer may cause due to the age of onset of breast cancer, prevalence of other types of cancer in a family and the number of relatives suffering from cancer and their relationship with the patient. For assessing hereditary breast cancer, a genetic counselor will necessarily gaze at patient’s family’s medical information known as pedigree starts from first-degree relatives (parents, children and siblings) and then second-degree relatives(grand parents , uncles and aunts) and then third-degree relatives such as cousins. In the U. S. A, every year about 200. 000 women and 1500 men is being diagnosed with breast cancer and about 5% of these are in women in the age of 40 and under. About 12% or One in eight of U. S women aged 90 years or younger will suffer from breast cancer sometimes during her life time and 1. 4% or one in 70 will suffer from ovarian cancer and about 23000 U. S. women develop ovarian cancer each year. The U. S. Preventive services Task Force (USPSTF) suggests against routine recommendation for genetic counseling or routine breast cancer susceptibility gene (BRCA) examining for women whose family history is not associated with an augmented risk for deleterious mutations in breast cancer susceptibility gene1 (BRCA1) or breast cancer susceptibility gene 2(BCRA 2) . The USPSTF advises that women whose family history is related with an augmented risk for deleterious mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA 2 genes be referred for genetic counseling and evaluation for BRCA testing. If any woman is tested positive for a known mutation, she can select medical options to lessen the risk for cancer or diagnose disease at an early stage. It is to be borne in mind that test can only spot the two most common genes engaged in hereditary breast cancer but under certain situation, even a negative test may not rule out hereditary breast cancer in a family. It is interesting to note that not every individual who bears a mutation will suffer from cancer at a later stage and genetic testing can not discover breast cancer nor it forewarn you with certainty when you grasp cancer at some stage in your life . Undergoing genetic test may help to choose treatment methods and follow-up care for breast cancer patients and survivors. More over, if a cancer patient is the first patient to have a genetic test in a family, then test result may assist to identify the cause of hereditary cancer in a family. The main aim of this thesis is to focus how genetic test in younger women with a family history of breast cancer can help to minimize the chance of contracting breast cancer and early test results may help the young patient to undertake medical precautions to avoid in contracting such worst disease at a later stage. 2. BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE: Every living thing is gifted with the genes which may be described as nature’s blue print. Usually genes come in pair. One set of gene is passed through your mother and other set is from your father. It is the genes which determine how your body will function and grow and color of hair and eyes. Sometimes the genes may not perform well as they have some defects in them. Such gene is called mutated or altered gene. It is called inherited altered gene if a gene with mistake is passed along in family members. Certain altered genes may result in cancer and gene alterations have been found in many families with a history of breast cancer. With the availability of genetic testing commercially now, young women especially with hereditary breast cancer have to decide to go for genetic testing to determine whether they carry a mutation in BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 that enhances of chances of contracting breast or ovarian cancer. Genetics testing may affect psychosocial functioning, health practices and associations with wards and finances. Another study reveals that there is 50% probability of carrying the mutation by the children when parents tested positive for a mutation in BRCA 1 and BRCA 2. In a retrospective review of 639 women at high risk for contracting breast cancer who underwent prophylactic mastectomy between 1960 and 1993, Hartman et al. (1999) found out that a 90% reduction in the incidence of breast cancer. Prophylactic oophorectomy is a preventive method that is suggested to women with a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2. Garber, Kuntz, Schrag, Weeks (2000) estimated a 50% reduction in ovarian cancer risk after the surgery due to findings from genetic testing. As per Rebbeck (2000) prophylactic oophorectomy reduces about a 50 to 70 % breast cancer risk. Early stage detection of ovarian cancer is low and hence Prophylactic oophorectomy is often used to detect the same . As per Frank (1998) although surveillance is carried through biannual professional examination, ultrasonography and CA 125 testing to women with mutations, the actual efficacy of these surveillance measures is unknown. BCRA 1 and BCRA 2 mutations can be innate from either mother or the father. The National Cancer Institute has revealed that some factors which are independent of each other which increase the chances that a person inherits BRCA mutation and they include: 4 1. A family record of a number of (three or more) close blood relatives (sisters, daughters, mother and grandmothers, aunts) suffered with breast cancer, ovarian cancer or both. 2. A family record of a early onset ( before 50 or before menopause) breast or ovarian cancer in one or more close blood relatives (mother, daughters ,sisters , aunts or grandmothers ) 3. A family record of one or more near blood relatives (mother , sisters, grandmothers ,daughters , aunts ) 4. A family record of one or more close male blood relatives ( father, grand fathers ,brothers , sons , uncles ) 5. Jewish ancestry namely Ashkenazi (Eastern European) and a family history of breast and or ovarian cancer. It is to be noted that both maternal and parental family history is pertinent for identifying a person’s risk for breast / ovarian cancer. The earlier we diagnose, the breast cancer can be easily contained and defeated. If diagnosed late, it spreads to lymph nodes and becomes incurable. 3. Preliminary Data Each year about 39000 women and between 200 and 300 men are prone to breast cancer in UK. As per U. K. Government statistics number of people who developed breast cancer every year has increased by 70% since 1971 and 15% in the ten years to 2000. About 80 % of U. K Women contract breast cancer in the age between 60 and 64. Only 5% of breast cancers (around 2000) are diagnosed in women under the age of 40 and 2% (800) in women under 35. Almost three-quarters of women diagnosed breast cancer in 1991-1995 were alive five years later. And that increase to 78% where cancer is detected by screening . The death rate among young and middle aged due to breast cancer has come down almost a third since 1980 and three out of four women can now beat the disease. In another study it was find out a woman with a strong family history of breast / ovarian cancer and bear a germ line mutation in one of these germs is sustained to a life time risk of breast cancer about 85% and about 60% for ovarian cancer is a very alarming one. How to cite Breast cancer, Papers